History

Prehistoric India Chalcolithic Age in India: Copper Age Cultures, Sites and Megalithic Culture In the Chalcolithic Age, India's Copper Age, farming villages of the Ahar-Banas, Kayatha, Malwa and Jorwe cultures used copper beside stone. Sep 202617 min read Prehistoric India Neolithic Age in India: Tools, Sites, Pottery and Revolution The Neolithic Age in India, from about 10,000 years ago, brought polished stone tools, farming, pottery and the first villages, from Mehrgarh to Burzahom. Sep 202616 min read Prehistoric India Mesolithic Age in India: Microliths, Sites and Bhimbetka Rock Paintings The Mesolithic Age, about 12,000 to 10,000 years ago, was the age of microliths, of hunters' camps such as Bagor and of the Bhimbetka rock paintings. Sep 202614 min read Prehistoric India Palaeolithic Age in India: Old Stone Age Tools, Phases and Sites The Palaeolithic Age, or Old Stone Age, lasted in India from about two million to 12,000 years ago, through three phases marked by changing stone tools. Sep 202616 min read Delhi Sultanate: Five Dynasties, Rulers, Timeline and Map, 1206 to 1526 Five dynasties ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1206 to 1526, governing through the iqta, minting the tanka and raising the Qutb Minar before its decline. Sep 202633 min read Bhakti & Sufi Sufi Silsilas in India: Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadiri and Naqshbandi Orders The Sufi silsilas were orders of Muslim mystics; the Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadiri and Naqshbandi shaped medieval India through the khanqah and the dargah. Jun 202623 min read Bhakti & Sufi Sufi Movement in India: Sufism Meaning, Origin, Doctrines and Practices The Sufi movement, the mystical path within Islam, began in Iraq, taught love of God through the stages of the path and met the Bhakti saints… Jun 202616 min read Bhakti & Sufi Regional Bhakti Movement: Varkari, Chaitanya, Sankardev and Women Saints The regional bhakti movement sang devotion in the people's languages through the Varkari saints, Chaitanya, Sankardev, Mirabai, Lal Ded and women saints. Jun 202621 min read Bhakti & Sufi Saguna Bhakti: Tulsidas, Surdas, the Ramcharitmanas and the Ashtachhap Saguna bhakti is devotion to God with form: Tulsidas sang of Rama in Awadhi, and Surdas and the Ashtachhap poets sang of Krishna in Braj Bhasha. Jun 202613 min read Bhakti & Sufi Nirguna Bhakti: Kabir, Guru Nanak, Ravidas and the Sant Tradition Nirguna bhakti, taught by Kabir, Guru Nanak, Ravidas and Dadu Dayal, is devotion to a formless God that spoke against caste and ritual. Jun 202616 min read Bhakti & Sufi The Vedanta Acharyas and the Lingayat Reform Movement The Vedanta acharyas and Lingayat movement for UPSC: Ramanuja, Madhva, Nimbarka and Vallabha, the four Vedanta schools, and Basava's Virashaiva reform. Jun 202623 min read Bhakti & Sufi Nayanars and Alvars: The South Indian Origins of Bhakti The Nayanars and Alvars for UPSC: the Shaiva and Vaishnava poet-saints of Tamil south India, the Tevaram and Divya Prabandham, and the origins of Bhakti. Jun 202617 min read Bhakti & Sufi Bhakti Movement in India: Origin, Philosophy, Causes, Features and Saints The Bhakti movement spread devotion to a personal God across medieval India, from the Tamil Alvars and Nayanars to Kabir, Nanak and Chaitanya. Jun 202623 min read The Mughals The Decline and Disintegration of the Mughal Empire The Mughal decline for UPSC: the causes after Aurangzeb, the later emperors, Nadir Shah's 1739 invasion, the Panipat of 1761, and the successor states. Jun 20268 min read The Mughals Mughal Art and Architecture: Buildings, Gardens, Painting and Calligraphy Mughal art joined Persian, Central Asian and Indian traditions in buildings from Humayun's Tomb to the Taj Mahal and in the Mughal school of painting. Jun 202634 min read The Mughals Mughal Administration, Society and Economy Mughal society and economy for UPSC: the classes from noble to peasant, the agrarian base, the textiles, Surat the Babul Makka, and the European companies. Jun 20267 min read The Mughals The Rivals of the Mughals: The Marathas, the Sikhs and the Rajputs The rivals of the Mughals, the Rajputs, Marathas and Sikhs, resisted Mughal power from Akbar's reign to about 1720 and outlived the empire. Jun 202630 min read The Mughals Aurangzeb (1658 to 1707): Reign, Religious Policy, Deccan Policy and Death Aurangzeb Alamgir, the sixth Mughal emperor, ruled from 1658 to 1707. He won a war of succession, reimposed the jizya and fought long wars in the… Jun 202625 min read The Mughals Shah Jahan and the Zenith of Mughal Splendour Shah Jahan for UPSC: the reign 1628 to 1658, the Taj Mahal and Red Fort, the Peacock Throne, and the succession war won by Aurangzeb over… Jun 20268 min read The Mughals Jahangir (1605 to 1627): Mughal Emperor, Nur Jahan and the English Jahangir, the fourth Mughal emperor (1605 to 1627), saw Nur Jahan rise to power, Mewar submit, Qandahar fall and the English open their first factories. Jun 202624 min read The Mughals Din-i-Ilahi and Akbar's Religious Policy: Sulh-i-kul, the Ibadat Khana and the Mahzar The Din-i-Ilahi was Akbar's small order of 1582. It grew out of his policy of sulh-i-kul, the Ibadat Khana debates and the mahzar of 1579. Jun 202624 min read The Mughals Akbar's Administration: Mansabdari System, Revenue and Provinces Akbar governed through four ministers, the mansabdari system of zat and sawar ranks, Todar Mal's zabt revenue and a chain of subas, sarkars and parganas. Jun 202632 min read The Mughals Akbar: The Rajput Policy and the Nobility Akbar's Rajput policy for UPSC: the Amber alliance of 1562, the Battle of Haldighati and Maharana Pratap, the abolition of the jizya, and the Navaratnas. Jun 202610 min read The Mughals Akbar: The Conquests and the Expansion of the Empire Akbar's conquests for UPSC: the Second Battle of Panipat against Hemu, Chittor, Gujarat, Bengal, Kashmir and the Deccan, and the empire at its height. Jun 20266 min read The Mughals Sher Shah Suri, the Afghan Conqueror of the Mughal Throne Sher Shah Suri beat Humayun at Chausa and Kannauj, measured the land for revenue, struck the silver rupiya and rebuilt the Grand Trunk Road. Jun 202617 min read The Mughals Humayun and the Struggle for the Throne Humayun for UPSC: his loss of the empire to Sher Shah at Chausa and Kannauj, his long exile in Persia, his recovery of Delhi in 1555,… Jun 20266 min read The Mughals Babur and the Founding of the Mughal Empire Babur for UPSC: the founding of the Mughal Empire at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, the battles of Khanwa, Chanderi and Ghaghra, and the… Jun 20267 min read Medieval Deccan Deccan Sultanate Architecture: Gol Gumbaz, Charminar, Bidar and Golconda Deccan Sultanate architecture runs from the Bahmani tombs of Gulbarga and Bidar to Bijapur's Gol Gumbaz and the Charminar of Hyderabad. Jun 202619 min read Medieval Deccan The Art and Architecture of Vijayanagara: Hampi Vijayanagara art and architecture for UPSC: the Dravidian style, the Virupaksha and Vitthala temples of Hampi, the Lotus Mahal, and the UNESCO heritage. Jun 20267 min read Medieval Deccan Vijayanagara: Administration, Society and the Travellers Vijayanagara administration and society for UPSC: the nayankara and amaram system, the army, the position of women, and the famous foreign travellers. Jun 20267 min read Medieval Deccan The Battle of Talikota, 1565, and the Fall of Vijayanagara The Battle of Talikota (1565) saw four Deccan Sultanates rout Vijayanagara and sack its capital, and the empire then declined under the Aravidu kings. Jun 202620 min read Medieval Deccan The Five Deccan Sultanates: Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Berar and Bidar The five Deccan Sultanates, Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Berar and Bidar, rose as the Bahmani kingdom broke up from 1490 and fell by 1687. Jun 202620 min read Medieval Deccan Krishnadevaraya and the Zenith of Vijayanagara Krishnadevaraya for UPSC: the Tuluva king of Vijayanagara's zenith, the Battle of Raichur, the Amuktamalyada, the Ashtadiggajas, and his administration. Jun 20268 min read Medieval Deccan Mahmud Gawan: Bahmani Wazir, Reforms and the Bidar Madrasa Mahmud Gawan, the Persian prime minister of the Bahmani Sultanate, took Goa, created eight tarafs and built the Bidar madrasa before his execution in 1481. Jun 202614 min read Medieval Deccan Sangama Dynasty and Saluva Dynasty: Deva Raya I to the Tuluva Takeover The Sangama dynasty peaked under Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II, declined after 1446 and gave way to the Saluva dynasty in 1485 and the Tuluvas in… Jun 202611 min read Medieval Deccan Bahmani Kingdom: Hasan Gangu, Gulbarga, Bidar and the Bahmani Sultans Bahmani kingdom of the Deccan, founded in 1347 by Hasan Gangu, with its capitals Gulbarga and Bidar, the wars with Vijayanagara and the break-up. Jun 20269 min read Medieval Deccan Vijayanagara Empire: Harihara, Bukka and the Rise of the Sangama Dynasty Founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka, the Vijayanagara Empire ruled the south from Hampi; its Sangama kings won Madurai and fought the Bahmanis. Jun 202610 min read Delhi Sultanate Indo-Islamic Architecture of the Delhi Sultanate Indo-Islamic architecture of the Delhi Sultanate for UPSC: the true arch and the dome, the Qutb Minar, the Alai Darwaza, and the Tughlaq and Lodi styles. Jun 20267 min read Delhi Sultanate Delhi Sultanate Society and Culture: Nobles, Towns, Women, Sufis and Saints Delhi Sultanate society set a rich urban nobility above townsfolk, peasants and slaves, while Sufis, Bhakti saints and Amir Khusrau shaped its culture. Jun 202614 min read Delhi Sultanate Economy of the Delhi Sultanate: Agriculture, Revenue, Trade and Coinage The economy of the Delhi Sultanate rested on peasant farming taxed at half the crop, controlled markets, growing towns and trade, and the silver tanka. Jun 202614 min read Delhi Sultanate Iqta System and the Administration of the Delhi Sultanate The Delhi Sultans paid and controlled their nobles through the iqta system and ran the state through the wazir, the diwan-i-arz and other departments. Jun 202617 min read Delhi Sultanate Lodi Dynasty and Sayyid Dynasty: Ibrahim Lodi and the Fall of the Delhi Sultanate After Timur sacked Delhi in 1398, the Sayyids and then the Lodi dynasty ruled until Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526. Jun 202616 min read Delhi Sultanate Tughlaq Dynasty: Founder, Rulers, Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firuz Shah Tughlaq The Tughlaq dynasty ruled Delhi from 1320 to 1414, through Muhammad bin Tughlaq's experiments and Firuz Shah's canals to its decline after Timur. Jun 202624 min read Delhi Sultanate Malik Kafur and the Mongol Invasions: Alauddin Khalji's Two Fronts Malik Kafur's Deccan campaigns to Devagiri, Warangal, Dwarasamudra and Madurai, and the Mongol invasions of India that Alauddin Khalji beat back. Jun 202615 min read Delhi Sultanate Alauddin Khalji: Conquests, Market Reforms and the Khalji Dynasty Alauddin Khalji, Sultan of Delhi from 1296 to 1316, conquered Gujarat, Ranthambhor and Chittor, fixed prices at Delhi and paid his army in cash. Jun 202618 min read Delhi Sultanate Later Slave Sultans: Razia Sultan and the Kingship of Balban Razia Sultan was the only woman to rule the Delhi Sultanate; Balban broke the Forty, made the Sultan the shadow of God and held the Mongols… Jun 202614 min read Delhi Sultanate Slave Dynasty: Foundation of the Delhi Sultanate by Qutb-ud‑din Aibak and Iltutmish The Slave, or Mamluk, dynasty founded the Delhi Sultanate in 1206. Aibak won the throne, Iltutmish made Delhi its capital, and the line ruled until 1290. Jun 202621 min read Peninsular Society, Religion, Administration and Legacy in the Peninsula The peninsular society and legacy for UPSC: the nadu and village assemblies, the Bhakti saints, the three languages, and the Pallava and Chalukya legacy. Jun 20266 min read Peninsular The Pallava Temples: Mamallapuram and Kanchipuram The Pallava temples for UPSC: the Pancha Rathas and Descent of the Ganges at Mamallapuram, the structural Shore Temple, and the Kanchipuram Kailasanatha. Jun 20267 min read Peninsular The Chalukya Temples: Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal The Chalukya temples for UPSC: the Badami caves, Aihole the cradle of the temple, Pattadakal the Heritage Site, and the Nagara, Dravida and Vesara styles. Jun 20267 min read Peninsular The Pallava-Chalukya Conflict The Pallava-Chalukya conflict for UPSC: the long war of Vatapi and Kanchipuram, the sack of Vatapi in 642, the Gangas and the Pandyas, and the outcome. Jun 20267 min read Peninsular The Pallavas of Kanchipuram The Pallavas of Kanchipuram for UPSC: Simhavishnu, the versatile Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I Mamalla who sacked Vatapi, and the builder Rajasimha. Jun 20266 min read Peninsular The Chalukyas of Badami and the Great Pulakeshin II The Chalukyas of Badami for UPSC: Pulakeshin I, the great Pulakeshin II who checked Harsha at the Narmada, the Aihole inscription and the fall of Vatapi. Jun 20266 min read Peninsular The Peninsula in the Age of the Pallavas and Chalukyas Peninsular India for UPSC: the rise of the Pallavas of Kanchipuram and the Chalukyas of Badami, their realms, their rivalry and the sources of the age. Jun 20266 min read Early Medieval The Decline and the Eve of the Turkish Invasions The eve of the Turkish invasions for UPSC: the divided north, Mahmud of Ghazni and Somnath, Al-Biruni, Muhammad of Ghor, Tarain and the Delhi Sultanate. Jun 20267 min read Early Medieval Society, Economy, Religion and Temple Architecture Early-medieval society, religion and temple architecture for UPSC: feudal society, Adi Shankara, Bhakti saints, and the Nagara, Dravida and Vesara styles. Jun 20267 min read Early Medieval The Rajput Kingdoms of Early-Medieval India The Rajput kingdoms for UPSC: the agnikula myth, the Chauhans and Prithviraj III, the Paramaras of Dhar, the Chandellas of Khajuraho and the Solankis. Jun 20267 min read Early Medieval The Rashtrakutas of the Deccan The Rashtrakutas of the Deccan for UPSC: Dantidurga, Krishna I and the Kailasa temple at Ellora, Amoghavarsha I, the Kannada Kavirajamarga and Manyakheta. Jun 20267 min read Early Medieval Pala Dynasty: Palas of Bengal and Bihar The Pala dynasty ruled Bengal and Bihar from 750 to the twelfth century, patronised Nalanda and Vikramashila and carried Buddhist learning to Tibet. Jun 202629 min read Early Medieval The Gurjara-Pratiharas of Kannauj The Gurjara-Pratiharas of Kannauj for UPSC: Nagabhata I, Nagabhata II, the great Mihira Bhoja, the bulwark against the Arabs of Sind and their decline. Jun 20267 min read Early Medieval The Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj The tripartite struggle for Kannauj for UPSC: the Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas and their century-long contest for the imperial city of the north. Jun 20267 min read Early Medieval The Early-Medieval Age, Feudalism and the Sources Early-medieval India for UPSC: the age after Harsha, the prize of Kannauj and the three great powers, the debate on Indian feudalism, and the sources. Jun 20268 min read Harsha Harshacharita, Banabhatta and the Legacy of Harsha Banabhatta's Harshacharita and Kadambari and Harsha's three plays show the literature of Harsha's court; his empire ended with his death in 647. Jun 202618 min read Harsha Hiuen Tsang and Harsha: Religion, the Kannauj and Prayag Assemblies Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang) visited India in Harsha's reign, attended his Kannauj and Prayag assemblies and described Nalanda in the Si-yu-ki. Jun 202630 min read Harsha The Administration and Economy of Harsha's Age Harsha's administration and economy for UPSC: land grants, the feudal turn, Hiuen-Tsang on the mild rule and ordeals, and the decline of towns and coins. Jun 20268 min read Harsha Harshavardhana's Empire: Extent, Campaigns and the Check at the Narmada Harshavardhana's empire spread across north India from Kannauj, held its kings as feudatories and allies, and met its southern limit on the Narmada. Jun 202616 min read Harsha The Rise of Harshavardhana: Thanesar, Kannauj and the Accession of 606 The rise of Harshavardhana began in 606, when he joined the crowns of Thanesar and Kannauj; Pulakeshin II later stopped his advance on the Narmada. Jun 202613 min read Harsha Post-Gupta North India: The Regional Kingdoms and the Sources Post-Gupta North India for UPSC: the Maukharis of Kannauj, the Later Guptas, the Maitrakas of Vallabhi, Shashanka of Gauda and Pushyabhutis of Thanesar. Jun 20267 min read Gupta Empire Gupta Society, Religion and the Decline of the Empire Gupta society and decline for UPSC: the varna order, Fa-Hien, the Eran sati of 510, devotional Hinduism, and the Huna invasions of Skandagupta onward. Jun 202611 min read Gupta Empire Gupta Art and Architecture: Sculpture, Ajanta Paintings, Temples and Coins Gupta art and architecture covers the Mathura and Sarnath Buddhas, the Ajanta and Bagh murals, the first temples at Deogarh and the gold coins. Jun 202626 min read Gupta Empire Gupta Period Literature: Kalidasa, Classical Sanskrit Drama and Learning Gupta period literature gave India Kalidasa's plays and poems, the classical Sanskrit stage, the final epics and Puranas, and the learning of Nalanda. Jun 202630 min read Gupta Empire The Gupta Golden Age: Science, Mathematics and Astronomy Gupta science and mathematics for UPSC: Aryabhata on zero, pi and the rotating Earth, the astronomy of Varahamihira, and Brahmagupta on zero and gravity. Jun 202610 min read Gupta Empire Gupta Administration, Economy and the Rise of Land Grants The Gupta administration ruled through provinces, districts and district boards, taxed land and labour, and granted tax-free land to Brahmanas and temples. Jun 202629 min read Gupta Empire Chandragupta II Vikramaditya: Conquests, Alliances, Coins and Faxian's Account Chandragupta II (c. 375 to 415 CE) conquered the Sakas, allied with the Vakatakas, issued the first Gupta silver coins and ruled when Faxian came to… Jun 202623 min read Gupta Empire Samudragupta: The Allahabad Prashasti and the Making of an Empire Samudragupta built the Gupta empire. Harishena's Allahabad Pillar inscription records his campaigns, and his gold coins mark his claim to rule. Jun 202620 min read Gupta Empire The Gupta Empire: Origins, Sources and the Rise of the Dynasty The Gupta Empire grew from the king Gupta to Chandragupta I, whose Licchavi marriage and era are known from inscriptions, coins and foreign accounts. Jun 202632 min read Post-Mauryan India Trade, Economy and Society: Indo-Roman Commerce and Mahayana Buddhism Post-Mauryan Indo-Roman trade, economy and society for UPSC: the Periplus, Yavanapriya pepper, Roman gold, the shreni guilds, and the rise of Mahayana. Jun 202610 min read Post-Mauryan India Gandhara, Mathura and Amaravati: The Post-Mauryan Schools of Art The Gandhara, Mathura and Amaravati schools of art for UPSC: the first Buddha images, Greco-Roman Gandhara, indigenous Mathura, marble Amaravati reliefs. Jun 202610 min read Post-Mauryan India The Satavahana Dynasty: Rulers, Administration, Trade and Caves of the Deccan The Satavahana dynasty ruled the Deccan from about the second century BCE to the third century CE, from Paithan to Amaravati on the Krishna. Jun 202636 min read Post-Mauryan India The Kushana Empire and Kanishka: The Saka Era and Mahayana The Kushana empire and Kanishka for UPSC: the Yuezhi, first gold coins, Kanishka, the Saka era, the Fourth Buddhist Council, Mahayana and the Silk Road. Jun 20268 min read Post-Mauryan India Western Kshatrapas: Sakas, Rudradaman and the Indo-Parthians The Western Kshatrapas were Saka rulers of western India, known for Rudradaman's Junagadh inscription, dated silver coins and the Saka era of 78 CE. Jun 202624 min read Post-Mauryan India The Indo-Greeks: Bactria, Menander and the First Portrait Coins The Indo-Greeks for UPSC: from Bactria across the Hindu Kush, Demetrius and Menander, the Milindapanha, the first portrait coins and the Gandhara legacy. Jun 20268 min read Post-Mauryan India Shunga Dynasty and Kanva Dynasty: North India after the Mauryas The Shunga dynasty and the Kanvas ruled Magadha after the Mauryas, fought the Greeks and saw the Heliodorus pillar and the Bharhut railings raised. Jun 202624 min read Post-Mauryan India The Post-Mauryan Period: Political Map, Invasions and Sources The post-Mauryan period, from about 200 BCE to 300 CE, brought new kingdoms, invaders from Central Asia and a rich record of coins and inscriptions. Jun 202622 min read Mauryan Empire The Decline of the Mauryas: Causes, Successor States and Legacy The decline of the Mauryas began soon after Ashoka's death and ended in a military coup around 185 BCE, leaving new kingdoms and a lasting legacy. Jun 202625 min read Mauryan Empire Mauryan Society, Art and Architecture Mauryan society, art and architecture for UPSC: the Ashokan pillars, the Sarnath Lion Capital, the Mauryan polish, stupas, the Barabar caves and folk art. Jun 202610 min read Mauryan Empire Mauryan Administration and Economy: The Arthashastra State Mauryan administration and economy for UPSC: the Arthashastra state, the saptanga theory, the provinces and capitals, the spy system, revenue, guilds and coins. Jun 202611 min read Mauryan Empire Edicts of Ashoka: Major and Minor Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts and Their Sites The edicts of Ashoka fall into six groups, from the 14 Major Rock Edicts to the Barabar cave inscriptions, and record his dhamma and his empire's… Jun 202621 min read Mauryan Empire Kalinga War and Ashoka's Dhamma: Causes, Results and the Spread of Buddhism The Kalinga War of about 261 BCE turned Ashoka from conquest to Dhamma, which he spread through his edicts, the Third Council and Buddhist missions. Jun 202619 min read Mauryan Empire Bindusara and the Accession of Ashoka: The Second Mauryan Emperor Bindusara, the second Mauryan emperor: His title Amitraghata, Greek envoys, Ajivika links, the Taxila revolts and how Ashoka won a disputed throne. Jun 202618 min read Mauryan Empire The Rise of the Mauryas: Chandragupta, Chanakya and the Conquest of Magadha Rise of the Mauryan Empire for UPSC: Chandragupta Maurya and Chanakya overthrow the Nandas, defeat Seleucus, the 303 BCE treaty and the empire's extent. Jun 20268 min read Mauryan Empire Sources for Mauryan History: Literary Texts, Inscriptions and Foreign Accounts Sources of Mauryan history for UPSC: Kautilya's Arthashastra, Megasthenes' Indica, the Ashokan edicts and Brahmi, the Buddhist and Jain texts, and coins. Jun 202610 min read Vedic Age Archaeology and the Transition to the Mahajanapadas The sixteen Mahajanapadas for UPSC: the Painted Grey Ware and NBPW archaeology, the rise of territorial states, monarchies and republics, and Magadha. Jun 20269 min read Vedic Age Vedic Religion, Ritual and the Upanishadic Turn Vedic religion for UPSC: the Rigvedic nature gods Indra, Agni and Varuna, the yajna and priests, Later Vedic ritualism and the Upanishadic turn to atman. Jun 20269 min read Vedic Age Vedic Economy: Rig Vedic Pastoral Economy to Later Vedic Agriculture The Vedic economy moved from Rig Vedic cattle-keeping to later Vedic farming in the Ganga-Yamuna doab, with iron tools, new crafts and units of exchange. Jun 202621 min read Vedic Age Vedic Society: Varna, Ashramas and the Position of Women Vedic society for UPSC: the varna order and the Purusha Sukta, the four ashramas and purusharthas, the samskaras and marriage, and the position of women. Jun 20269 min read Vedic Age Vedic Polity: From Tribal Assemblies to Territorial Kingship Vedic polity for UPSC: the Rigvedic rajan and the assemblies (sabha, samiti, vidatha), the Battle of the Ten Kings, and Later Vedic territorial kingship. Jun 20269 min read Vedic Age Vedic Literature and the Knowledge Systems of the Vedas Vedic literature and knowledge systems for UPSC: the four Vedas, the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads, the six Vedangas, and the Sulbasutras and astronomy. Jun 20267 min read Vedic Age The Vedic Age: Origins, Chronology and the Geography of Early India The Vedic Age for UPSC: origins, chronology and geography. The two phases, the Aryan question, the seven rivers of Sapta Sindhu, and the eastward shift. Jun 20268 min read Indus Valley Harappan Legacy, Historiography and Comparative Civilisation Harappan legacy, historiography and comparison for UPSC: what the Indus civilisation left, how it was studied, and how it compares with Egypt and Sumer. Jun 20269 min read Indus Valley The Decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation and the Aryan Question The decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation and the Aryan question for UPSC: why the Harappan cities fell by 1900 BCE, and the migration and DNA… Jun 202612 min read Indus Valley Harappan Art, the Seals and the Undeciphered Indus Script Harappan art, seals and script for UPSC: the steatite seals and the unicorn, the bronze Dancing Girl, the Priest-King, and the undeciphered Indus script. Jun 20266 min read Indus Valley Harappan Religion, Society and Polity: Gods, Rulers and Burials of the Indus Valley Harappan religion explained: the mother goddess, Pashupati seal, fire altars and Great Bath, with Indus Valley civilization society, rulers and burials. Jun 202618 min read Indus Valley The Harappan Economy, Crafts, Trade and Technology Harappan economy for UPSC: the first cotton, wheat and barley, the bead and metal crafts, the overseas trade with Mesopotamia, and the standard weights. Jun 20266 min read Indus Valley Harappan Town Planning, Architecture and Engineering Harappan town planning gave cities a citadel, gridded streets, standard bricks and covered drains, with the Great Bath and Dholavira's reservoirs. Jun 202620 min read Indus Valley Harappan Sites and Their Findings: Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, Lothal and More Each Harappan site, from Mohenjo-daro and Harappa to Dholavira, Lothal, Kalibangan and Rakhigarhi, has its own river, excavator and signature find. Jun 202623 min read Indus Valley Discovery, Extent and Chronology of the Indus Civilisation Indus Valley Civilisation for UPSC: discovery of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, the phases from Mehrgarh to Late Harappan, and the extent of the first cities. Jun 20267 min read Chola Administration Chola Economy, Temple, Society and Administrative Legacy Chola economy, temple, society and legacy for UPSC: the agrarian base, merchant guilds and sea trade, the temples, Nataraja bronzes and self-government. Jun 202611 min read Chola Administration Chola Revenue, Irrigation, Military and Judicial Administration Chola revenue, irrigation, military and justice for UPSC: the kadamai land tax, Kaveri tanks and canals, the Chola navy, overseas raids and village courts. Jun 20269 min read Chola Administration Chola Provincial Administration, Local Self-Government and the Uttaramerur Inscription The Uttaramerur inscriptions of Parantaka I record how a Chola village chose its committees by lot, within a state of provinces and village assemblies. Jun 202614 min read Chola Administration Chola Dynasty: Rise, Rulers, Empire and Central Administration The Chola dynasty rose under Vijayalaya about 850, reached the Ganga and Srivijaya under Rajaraja I and Rajendra I, and ruled through a strong king. Jun 202624 min read Nation-Building Analytical Themes and the Verdict on Nation-Building Analytical themes and the verdict on nation-building: the core challenges, secularism, planning, federalism, the Emergency, and democracy's resilience. Jun 202615 min read Nation-Building Landmark Policies and Programmes of Independent India Landmark policies and programmes of independent India: the Five-Year Plans, the Green and White Revolutions, the 1991 reforms, welfare and Digital India. Jun 202614 min read Nation-Building Architects of Nation-Building Architects of nation-building: Nehru, Patel, Ambedkar, Shastri, Indira Gandhi, Narasimha Rao and Verghese Kurien, the leaders who built the new republic. Jun 202613 min read Nation-Building Contemporary India Since 1991 Contemporary India since 1991: the LPG reforms, the WTO, the age of coalitions, the rise of services, jobless growth, and the reorganisation of the states. Jun 202615 min read Nation-Building Development versus Ecology: Environmental Movements The environmental movements of independent India: the Bishnoi, Chipko, Silent Valley, the Narmada Bachao Andolan, the green laws and the ecology debate. Jun 202617 min read Nation-Building Science, Technology and Space Science, technology and space after 1947: the AEC and DAE, the Bhabha three-stage nuclear programme, ISRO from Aryabhata to Mangalyaan, and the IT boom. Jun 202615 min read Nation-Building Constitutional Evolution: Amendments and Panchayati Raj Constitutional evolution after 1950: the basic structure cases, the 42nd and 44th Amendments, the 73rd and 74th Amendments, judicial activism and PESA. Jun 202615 min read Nation-Building The Emergency 1975‑77: Democracy's Turning Point The Emergency 1975‑77: the JP movement, the Allahabad verdict, the proclamation of 25 June 1975, the 42nd Amendment and its reversal by the 44th Amendment. Jun 202615 min read Nation-Building Regionalism, Separatism and Insurgency Regionalism, separatism and insurgency after 1947: the typology of movements, the Dravidian and Punjab cases, the north-east, Naxalism and the accords. Jun 202615 min read Nation-Building The Language and Cultural Question The language and cultural question after 1947: the Munshi-Ayyangar compromise, Articles 343 to 351, the anti-Hindi agitations and the Eighth Schedule. Jun 202615 min read Nation-Building Women, Education and Health After 1947 Women, education and health after 1947: the Hindu Code Bills, gender equality, the Kothari Commission, the Bhore Committee and family planning of 1952. Jun 202615 min read Nation-Building Social Justice: Caste, Reservation and the Dalit Movement Social justice in India since 1947: the Poona Pact, Article 17, reservation under Articles 15 and 16, the Mandal moment of 1990 and the Dalit movement. Jun 202616 min read Nation-Building Wars and the Bomb, 1947 to 1999 India's wars and the bomb, 1947 to 1999: four wars and Kargil, the Tashkent and Shimla agreements, and the road from Pokhran to its nuclear weapons. Jun 202613 min read Nation-Building India and Its Neighbours India and its neighbours after 1947: Partition and Kashmir, the Indus Waters Treaty, the Tibet question, and the founding treaties with Nepal and Bhutan. Jun 202611 min read Nation-Building Foundations of Foreign Policy and Non-Alignment Non-alignment and the foundations of India's foreign policy: anti-colonial roots, Panchsheel, Bandung 1955, the birth of NAM at Belgrade and its critiques. Jun 202613 min read Nation-Building LPG Reforms of 1991: The Economic Crisis and the New Economic Policy India's LPG reforms of 1991 answered a balance of payments crisis and changed industrial, trade, banking and tax policy, opening the economy to the world. Jun 202629 min read Nation-Building Industrial Development and the Licence Raj The licence raj, India's system of industrial controls from the 1950s to 1991, joined state-built heavy industry with licences for private firms. Jun 202629 min read Nation-Building Land Reforms in India, the Green Revolution and the White Revolution Land reforms in India after 1947 changed who owned the land; the Green Revolution and Operation Flood changed what it produced and who earned from milk. Jun 202637 min read Nation-Building Planning in India: The Five-Year Plan Era The Five-Year Plan era in India: the Planning Commission of 1950, the National Development Council, the Mahalanobis strategy and the shift to NITI Aayog. Jun 202611 min read Nation-Building Industrial Policy Resolution 1956 and the Mixed Economy in India The Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956 built India's mixed economy through three Schedules of industry, licensing, small industry and the public sector. Jun 202621 min read Nation-Building The Party System: Coalitions and Electoral Reform After 1967 The party system in India after 1967: the end of Congress dominance, defections, the 1969 split, coalition politics and the anti-defection law, for UPSC. Jun 20267 min read Nation-Building The Congress System: One-Party Dominance and Indian Democracy Parliamentary democracy and the Congress system in India: the first general election of 1951‑52, Sukumar Sen, one-party dominance and Nehru's leadership. Jun 20267 min read Nation-Building Federalism and Centre-State Relations: A Strong Centre Federalism and centre-state relations in India: the quasi-federal design, the Governor and Article 356, the Sarkaria Commission and cooperative federalism. Jun 20267 min read Nation-Building Linguistic Reorganisation of States: From Andhra 1953 to 1956 Linguistic reorganisation of states: the Dhar and JVP committees, Andhra 1953, the Fazl Ali Commission and the States Reorganisation Act 1956, for UPSC. Jun 20267 min read Nation-Building Salient Features of the Indian Constitution: Why They Were Chosen Salient features of the Indian Constitution: parliamentary democracy, federalism, fundamental rights, secularism, the franchise and judiciary, for UPSC. Jun 20268 min read Nation-Building Making of the Constitution: The Constituent Assembly, 1946 to 1950 The making of the Constitution took the Constituent Assembly from its first sitting in December 1946 to adoption in 1949 and commencement in 1950. Jun 202632 min read Nation-Building Hard Cases of Integration: Junagadh, Hyderabad, Kashmir, Goa The hard cases of integration: Junagadh, Hyderabad and Operation Polo, the Kashmir accession and Article 370, and the liberation of Goa in 1961, for UPSC. Jun 20268 min read Nation-Building Integration of the Princely States: Patel and V. P. Menon Integration of the princely states: Sardar Patel, V. P. Menon, the lapse of paramountcy, the Instrument of Accession and merger of the states, for UPSC. Jun 20267 min read Nation-Building Partition of India 1947: Mountbatten Plan and Radcliffe Line Partition of India 1947: the Mountbatten Plan, the Independence Act, the Radcliffe Line, the refugee crisis and the birth of two dominions, for UPSC - CSE. Jun 20268 min read Nation-Building Challenges of Nation Building in India After 1947 The challenges of nation building in India after 1947 were Partition, the princely states, linguistic states, language, the first election and planning. Jun 202646 min read Modern India to 1885 Colonialism Assessed: Analytical Themes, Ready-Reckoners and the Verdict Impact of colonial rule on India assessed: the destructive-versus-modernising debate, the economic balance sheet and a ready-reckoner of the era, for UPSC. Jun 20269 min read Modern India to 1885 The Revolt of 1857: The Great Watershed of Modern Indian History The Revolt of 1857: the causes, the centres and leaders, the nature debate, why it failed, and the Government of India Act of 1858, for UPSC. Jun 20268 min read Modern India to 1885 Early Political Associations and the Road to the Indian National Congress Early political associations and the road to the Indian National Congress: the Indian Association, the Ilbert Bill and the founding of 1885, for UPSC. Jun 20268 min read Modern India to 1885 Tribal and Peasant Uprisings against Colonial Rule before 1885 Tribal and peasant uprisings before 1885: the Santhal Hul, the Munda Ulgulan, the Indigo Revolt, the Pabna league and the Deccan Riots, for UPSC - CSE. Jun 20268 min read Modern India to 1885 Education and the Press under Colonial Rule in Modern India Education under British rule and the rise of the Indian press: Macaulay, Wood's Despatch, the universities and the Vernacular Press Act, for UPSC - CSE. Jun 20268 min read Modern India to 1885 Socio-Religious Reform: Muslim, Sikh, Anti-Caste Reform and the Woman Question Social reform movements: the Aligarh and Deoband, the Singh Sabha, the Satyashodhak Samaj and the woman question and social legislation, for UPSC - CSE. Jun 20268 min read Modern India to 1885 Socio-Religious Reform: The Bengal Renaissance and Hindu Reform Socio-religious reform and the Bengal Renaissance: Ram Mohan Roy, the Brahmo Samaj, Young Bengal, the Prarthana and Arya Samaj, for UPSC - CSE preparation. Jun 20269 min read Modern India to 1885 Deindustrialisation, the Drain of Wealth and the Famines of British Rule Drain of wealth, deindustrialisation and famines under British rule: Naoroji, the Home Charges, the railway guarantee and the Famine Commission, for UPSC. Jun 20268 min read Modern India to 1885 Land Revenue Systems of British India: Ryotwari System, Mahalwari System and Permanent Settlement The ryotwari system, the mahalwari system and the Permanent Settlement decided who paid land revenue in British India and what it meant for the peasant. Jun 202628 min read Modern India to 1885 Lord Dalhousie and the Machinery of Modern Administration Lord Dalhousie and modern administration: the Doctrine of Lapse, railways, telegraph, the ICS, the Penal Code and the founder of modern India, for UPSC. Jun 20267 min read Modern India to 1885 First Governor-General of India and the Early Governor-Generals: Warren Hastings to Bentinck William Bentinck became the first Governor-General of India in 1833; Warren Hastings had been the first Governor-General of Bengal, from 1773. Jun 202625 min read Modern India to 1885 The Regulating Act of 1773 and the Colonial Constitutional Framework The Regulating Act of 1773, Pitt's India Act and the four Charter Acts brought the East India Company under Parliament until the Crown took over in… Jun 202627 min read Modern India to 1885 The Anglo-Sikh Wars and Britain's Conquest of the Frontiers The Anglo-Sikh Wars and the conquest of the frontiers: Punjab, Sindh, Nepal and Burma, from Ranjit Singh to annexation, for UPSC - CSE exam preparation. Jun 20266 min read Modern India to 1885 Subsidiary Alliance and the Anglo-Mysore and Anglo-Maratha Wars The Subsidiary Alliance made Indian rulers dependent on the Company, as four Anglo-Mysore and three Anglo-Maratha Wars broke Mysore and the Marathas. Jun 202633 min read Modern India to 1885 The Carnatic Wars and the British Conquest of Bengal Conquest of Bengal and the Carnatic Wars: Plassey 1757, Buxar 1764, the Diwani of 1765, and why the Company's armies won, for UPSC - CSE exam… Jun 20268 min read Modern India to 1885 Advent of Europeans in India: Portuguese, Dutch, English, French and Danes The advent of Europeans in India began in 1498; five powers built fortified factories and fought for trade, and only the English built an empire. Jun 202630 min read Modern India to 1885 Successor States of the Mughal Empire: Rise of Regional States in 18th-Century India The successor states of the Mughal Empire, Bengal, Awadh and Hyderabad, rose in the eighteenth century beside the Maratha, Sikh, Jat and Rajput states. Jun 202618 min read Modern India to 1885 Decline of the Mughal Empire and Eighteenth-Century India Decline of the Mughal Empire: weak successors, the jagirdari crisis, Nadir Shah, Abdali and Panipat 1761, and the fragmentation of India, for UPSC - CSE. Jun 20269 min read The Gandhian Era The Gandhian Era: Historiography, Analysis and the Verdict The Gandhian era weighed: schools of interpretation, the verdict on Gandhi, and a ready-reckoner of the sessions, Acts and pacts, for UPSC - CSE Mains. Jun 20269 min read The Gandhian Era Many Voices: Peasant Movements, Tribals, Workers and Women in the Freedom Struggle Peasant movements, the Kisan Sabhas, tribal revolts, workers and women in the freedom struggle, plus the great Bengal Famine of 1943, for UPSC - CSE Mains. Jun 202610 min read The Gandhian Era The Constructive Programme and Gandhian Economic Thought The constructive programme and Gandhian economic thought: khadi, Nai Talim, trusteeship, swadeshi and the village-centred economy, for UPSC - CSE Mains. Jun 20267 min read The Gandhian Era Gandhi and Social Reform: Caste, Untouchability and the Poona Pact Untouchability and Gandhi's social reform: the Harijan campaign, the temple-entry movements, the Gandhi-Ambedkar debate and the Poona Pact, for UPSC - CSE. Jun 20269 min read The Gandhian Era The Integration of the Princely States into the Indian Union (1947‑1948) The integration of the princely states in 1947‑48: Patel, Menon, the Instrument of Accession and the holdouts of Junagadh, Hyderabad and Kashmir, for UPSC. Jun 20268 min read The Gandhian Era The Partition of India: From Wavell to the Radcliffe Line (1945‑1947) The Partition of India in 1947: the Cabinet Mission, Direct Action Day, the Mountbatten Plan and the Radcliffe Line, for UPSC - CSE Mains GS‑I aspirants. Jun 202611 min read The Gandhian Era Communal Politics, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan (1906‑1947) The Muslim League and the demand for Pakistan: separate electorates, the two-nation theory and the Lahore Resolution of 1940, for UPSC - CSE aspirants. Jun 20269 min read The Gandhian Era Indian National Army: Subhas Chandra Bose, Azad Hind and the INA Trials The Indian National Army, raised by Mohan Singh in 1942 and revived by Subhas Chandra Bose in 1943, fought at Imphal, and its trials stirred India… Jun 202636 min read The Gandhian Era The Quit India Movement of 1942: Do or Die and the Final Mass Upsurge The Quit India Movement of 1942 demanded an end to British rule, and with its leaders jailed it went on underground and in parallel governments. Jun 202634 min read The Gandhian Era The Second World War, the Failed Missions and Individual Satyagraha (1939‑1944) Individual Satyagraha, the August Offer and the Cripps Mission, 1939 to 1944: India and the Second World War, explained for the UPSC - CSE examination. Jun 20268 min read The Gandhian Era Provincial Autonomy 1937: Elections, Congress Ministries and the 1939 Resignation Provincial autonomy under the 1935 Act began in 1937, when Congress ministries took office in most provinces, and ended for them in 1939 over the war. Jun 202629 min read The Gandhian Era Government of India Act 1935: Features, Federation and Legacy The Government of India Act, 1935, gave the provinces autonomy, planned a federation that never formed and shaped much of the Constitution of India. Jun 202633 min read The Gandhian Era Bhagat Singh, the HSRA and the Chittagong Armoury Raid: Revolutionary Nationalism (1924‑1934) Revolutionary nationalism revived from 1924 to 1934 through Kakori, Bhagat Singh's HSRA, the Chittagong armoury raid and Bengal's women revolutionaries. Jun 202630 min read The Gandhian Era The Round Table Conferences, the Poona Pact and Civil Disobedience Phase II (1931‑1934) The Round Table Conferences, the Poona Pact and Civil Disobedience Phase II, 1931 to 1934: negotiation and the Depressed Classes, for UPSC - CSE aspirants. Jun 20269 min read The Gandhian Era Purna Swaraj and the Salt Satyagraha: Civil Disobedience Phase I (1929‑1931) The Salt Satyagraha and Purna Swaraj, 1929 to 1931: the Lahore Congress, Gandhi's Dandi March and Civil Disobedience Phase I, for UPSC - CSE aspirants. Jun 20269 min read The Gandhian Era The Simon Commission, the Nehru Report and the Communal Fault-line (1927‑1929) The Simon Commission, the Nehru Report and Jinnah's Fourteen Points, 1927 to 1929: the constitutional and communal parting of the ways, for UPSC - CSE. Jun 20269 min read The Gandhian Era The Swaraj Party and the Council-Entry Years (1922‑1928) The Swaraj Party and the council-entry years, 1922 to 1928: C. R. Das, Motilal Nehru and obstruction from within the councils, for UPSC - CSE aspirants. Jun 20268 min read The Gandhian Era The Non-Cooperation Movement: Programme, Spread and Chauri Chaura (1920‑1922) In the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1920 to 1922 Indians were asked to withdraw their cooperation from British rule; it was called off after Chauri Chaura. Jun 202636 min read The Gandhian Era Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh and the Khilafat Movement (1919‑1920) The Rowlatt Act of 1919 led to the first all-India satyagraha and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, and by 1920 the Khilafat Movement had joined the Congress. Jun 202643 min read The Gandhian Era Champaran Satyagraha, Kheda Satyagraha and the Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1917‑1918) The Champaran Satyagraha of 1917, the Ahmedabad mill strike and the Kheda Satyagraha of 1918 brought Gandhi's method to India's peasants and workers. Jun 202622 min read The Gandhian Era Gandhi Before the Mass Movement: South Africa, Satyagraha and the Gandhian Creed Satyagraha and the Gandhian creed: Gandhi in South Africa, the rise of Ahimsa, Swaraj, Sarvodaya and Trusteeship, explained for UPSC - CSE preparation. Jun 20269 min read Moderates & Extremists The Verdict: Moderates versus Extremists and the Historiography Moderates versus Extremists for UPSC: a structured comparison, a final assessment of each, the historiography and the inheritance passed to Gandhi. Jun 20269 min read Moderates & Extremists Reunion, the Lucknow Pact and the Home Rule Leagues of 1916 The Lucknow Pact of 1916 and the Home Rule Leagues for UPSC: the Congress reunion, the Congress-League pact, Tilak and Besant, and the Montagu Declaration. Jun 20269 min read Moderates & Extremists Early Revolutionary Nationalism: Bengal, Maharashtra and Abroad Early revolutionary nationalism for UPSC: the Anushilan Samiti, Jugantar and Abhinav Bharat, the Muzaffarpur bomb, India House and the Ghadar Party. Jun 20269 min read Moderates & Extremists Morley-Minto Reforms (Indian Councils Act, 1909) and the Muslim League The Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 enlarged India's legislative councils and created separate electorates, three years after the Muslim League was founded. Jun 202623 min read Moderates & Extremists The Surat Split of 1907 and the Machinery of British Repression The Surat Split of 1907 and British repression for UPSC: the Moderate-Extremist rift, the 1906 Calcutta resolutions, the repressive Acts and the trials. Jun 20269 min read Moderates & Extremists Partition of Bengal 1905 and the Swadeshi Movement: Causes, Methods and Annulment Curzon's partition of Bengal in 1905 set off the Swadeshi movement of boycott and national education, split the Congress at Surat and was annulled in 1911. Jun 202643 min read Moderates & Extremists The Extremist Leaders: Lal Bal Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh The extremist leaders Tilak, Lajpat Rai, Pal and Aurobindo led the Congress from petition to swadeshi and boycott, until it split at Surat in 1907. Jun 202634 min read Moderates & Extremists The Rise of the Extremists: Causes, Ideology and Programme Rise of the Extremists for UPSC: the causes (Curzon, partition, famine, world events), the ideology of Swaraj and self-reliance, and the four-fold programme. Jun 20268 min read Moderates & Extremists Demands of the Moderates: Achievements, Limitations and Critical Assessment The demands of the Moderates from 1885 to 1905 won the Councils Act of 1892 and little else, yet the Moderates laid the base of the… Jun 202624 min read Moderates & Extremists Drain of Wealth Theory: Dadabhai Naoroji and Moderate Economic Nationalism Dadabhai Naoroji's drain of wealth theory explains how British rule carried India's wealth to Britain and how the Moderates made it the case for swaraj. Jun 202626 min read Moderates & Extremists Moderate Leaders of India: Naoroji, Gokhale, Banerjee and Their Work Naoroji, Gokhale, Banerjee, Mehta and Ranade, the Moderate leaders of India, built the early political bodies and the economic critique of colonial rule. Jun 202619 min read Moderates & Extremists The Moderates: Ideology, Methods and Constitutional Agitation (1885 to 1905) The Moderates, the early nationalists who led the Congress from 1885 to 1905, sought reform within British rule by petitions, the press and the councils. Jun 202617 min read Moderates & Extremists Pre-Congress Associations and the Foundation of the INC (1885) Foundation of the Indian National Congress 1885 for UPSC: the pre-Congress associations, A.O. Hume, the first session, and the safety-valve debate. Jun 20269 min read Moderates & Extremists The Rise of Indian Nationalism: Roots, Causes and Factors Rise of Indian nationalism for UPSC: how colonial unification, English education, the press, social reform and racial laws built a national consciousness. Jun 202612 min read Revolt of 1857 Revolt of 1857: Sepoy Mutiny or First War of Independence? Views of Historians Savarkar, Marx, Majumdar, Sen, Stokes and the subaltern historians disagree on whether 1857 was a sepoy mutiny or the first war of independence. Jun 202628 min read Revolt of 1857 Consequences of the Revolt of 1857 and the Government of India Act 1858 The consequences of the Revolt of 1857 for UPSC: the Government of India Act 1858, Crown rule, the Queen's Proclamation, the army and the princely states. Jun 202610 min read Revolt of 1857 The Suppression of the Revolt of 1857: The British Reconquest and Its Reprisals The suppression of the Revolt of 1857 for UPSC: the British reconquest of Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow and Central India, the reprisals and the end of Company… Jun 202612 min read Revolt of 1857 Participation, Nature and Causes of Failure of the Revolt of 1857 Participation, nature and causes of failure of the Revolt of 1857 for UPSC: who joined, who stayed loyal, the character of the revolt and why it… Jun 202613 min read Revolt of 1857 Leaders of the Revolt of 1857 and Their Centres: Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow and Jhansi The leaders of the Revolt of 1857 included Zafar at Delhi, Nana Sahib at Kanpur, Hazrat Mahal at Lucknow, Lakshmibai at Jhansi and Kunwar Singh in… Jun 202622 min read Revolt of 1857 Causes of the Revolt of 1857: Political, Economic, Military and Religious The causes of the Revolt of 1857 were political, economic, military and religious, from the Doctrine of Lapse and Awadh to the greased cartridge. Jun 202625 min read Revolt of 1857 Revolt of 1857: Meaning, Nature and the Uprisings Before It Revolt of 1857 explained for UPSC: the meaning and nature of the great uprising and the century of civil, tribal and sepoy rebellions that came before… Jun 20269 min read Bardoli Satyagraha 1928: The No-Tax Campaign Led by Vallabhbhai Patel The Bardoli Satyagraha of 1928, led by Vallabhbhai Patel, was a no-tax campaign of Surat peasants; an inquiry cut the revenue increase to 6.03 per cent. May 202613 min read Flag Satyagraha (Jhanda Satyagraha) of 1923: Nagpur, Jabalpur and the Swaraj Flag The Flag Satyagraha of 1923 at Nagpur and Jabalpur defied the ban on the Swaraj flag; Jamnalal Bajaj began it and Vallabhbhai Patel won its settlement. Feb 202116 min read Classical Dance Forms of India: The 8 Classical Dances, Their States and Features India's eight classical dance forms share the Natya Shastra's grammar; each belongs to a region, and the Ministry of Culture adds Chhau as a ninth. Aug 202027 min read Liberalisation in India: Meaning, the 1991 Reforms, Key Measures and Effects on the Economy Liberalisation in India explained: meaning, the 1991 crisis and New Economic Policy, industrial, financial, tax and trade reforms, and their effects. Jun 201911 min read Industrial Revolution in England: Why It Began, Inventions, Life and Impact on India The Industrial Revolution in England began around 1760 as coal, capital and machines came together; it remade work and towns and hurt India's handicrafts. Mar 201938 min read Economic Impact of British Rule in India: Deindustrialisation, Drain and Famines The economic impact of British rule in India came through land revenue, deindustrialisation, famines, railways and the drain of wealth. Jan 201951 min read Permanent Settlement of Bengal 1793: Ruin of Old Zamindars and the New Landlordism Cornwallis's Permanent Settlement of 1793 fixed Bengal's land revenue for ever, ruined many old zamindars and raised jotedars and new landlords. Dec 201831 min read Father of Indian Constitution: B. R. Ambedkar's Role and Social Reform B. R. Ambedkar, father of the Indian Constitution, chaired its Drafting Committee, called Article 32 its heart and soul, and drafted the Hindu Code Bill. Dec 201844 min read Wavell Plan 1945 and the Shimla Conference: Proposals and Failure The Wavell Plan of 14 June 1945 offered an all-Indian Executive Council with caste Hindu and Muslim parity; it failed at the Shimla Conference. Dec 201823 min read Mountbatten Plan 1947: 3 June Plan, Balkan Plan and Independence Act The Mountbatten Plan of 3 June 1947 divided British India into two dominions through provincial votes, two referendums and the Radcliffe Line. Nov 201831 min read Wood's Despatch 1854: Recommendations, Significance and Limitations Wood's Despatch of 1854, called the Magna Carta of English Education in India, set out a graded system of education from village schools to universities. Nov 201821 min read