UPSC Mains 2026 · General Studies Paper II

UPSC Mains 2026 GS Paper 2 Questions with Answer Frameworks

All 20 questions of General Studies Paper II, UPSC Mains 2026, held on 22 August 2026, each with an answer framework that shows what the question asks, a strong opening, the points to cover and a balanced conclusion.

22 August 2026Exam date
20Questions
250Marks
3 hoursTime

See the questions Official PDF Answer booklet

GS Paper 2 in other years:2026 2025 2024

UPSC Mains 2026 GS Paper 2 Questions

GS II Q1Polity

Right to privacy relating to self-identity is very dear to every human being and well protected under Article 21 of the Constitution. In this context, examine the effect of the amendment in 2026, to the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019.

10 marks150 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

Examine Probe the issue in depth: Causes, evidence and consequences.

For Polity: Quote Articles, landmark cases and committees by name; end with a balanced way forward.

For this question: Link the amendment to Puttaswamy's proportionality test; that is the "examine the effect" core.

What the question asks

Two steps: Set out the constitutional basis (privacy and self-identity under Article 21), then examine what the 2026 amendment changes and whether it fits that basis.

A strong opening

In NALSA v Union of India (2014) the Supreme Court held that the right to self-identify one's gender is part of personal liberty and dignity; in Puttaswamy (2017) a nine-judge bench recognised privacy as a fundamental right under Article 21.

Points to cover

The 2019 Act

It recognised a transgender person's right to a self-perceived gender identity and let the District Magistrate issue a certificate of identity on application.

What the 2026 amendment does

Passed by Parliament on 24 and 25 March 2026, with assent on 30 March 2026, it removes the right to self-perceived identity.
It narrows the definition to socio-cultural identities (such as kinner, hijra, aravani, jogta) and intersex persons.
Medical boards at the State or UT level must verify an applicant before the District Magistrate issues a certificate.
Hospitals must report gender-affirming surgery to the authorities; new offences cover forcing or inducing a person to present a transgender identity.

Effect on rights

Mandatory medical scrutiny intrudes into bodily and decisional privacy, which Puttaswamy protects, and sits uneasily with NALSA's self-identification principle.
Trans men, trans women and non-binary persons outside the listed identities may lose legal recognition and access to welfare.
The government's case: Verification stops misuse and targets benefits at genuine beneficiaries. Any restriction must still pass Puttaswamy's test of legality, legitimate aim and proportionality.

A balanced conclusion

Preventing misuse is a legitimate aim, but a proportionate law would verify through less intrusive means and keep self-identity at its core; the amendment's validity will turn on that test.

Sources: Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Amendment Act, 2026 (Wikipedia); National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India (Wikipedia); Puttaswamy v. Union of India (Wikipedia)

GS II Q2Social Justice

"Women as a class neither belong to a minority group nor are they regarded as forming a backward class." In the light of this statement, discuss the evolution of women's reservation from local bodies to Parliament.

10 marks150 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

Discuss Cover the main aspects, with arguments on more than one side.

For Social Justice: Cite the Act, the scheme and one data point on the group affected.

For this question: Explain why women are not a minority or backward class, then trace 1992, 2023 and the 2026 delay.

What the question asks

Use the quoted idea (women are neither a minority nor a backward class, yet are under-represented) to explain why reservation for women needed its own route, and trace that route from panchayats to Parliament.

A strong opening

Women are half the population, so reservation for them cannot rest on the minority or backward-class logic of other quotas. It rests instead on their persistent under-representation in elected bodies.

Points to cover

Local bodies first

The 73rd and 74th Amendments (1992) reserved one-third of seats and chairperson posts in panchayats and municipalities for women (Articles 243D and 243T); many States have since raised this to 50 per cent.
This created lakhs of elected women representatives, though the 'sarpanch pati' problem of proxy rule persists.

The long road to Parliament

Bills were introduced from 1996 onwards; the 2010 Bill passed the Rajya Sabha but lapsed in the Lok Sabha.
The Constitution (106th Amendment) Act, 2023, the Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, reserves one-third of seats in the Lok Sabha, State Assemblies and the Delhi Assembly, including within SC and ST seats, for 15 years.

The catch: Timing

The quota takes effect only after delimitation based on the first census after the Act. In April 2026 the Constitution (131st Amendment) Bill, which sought to enable delimitation and bring the quota into force, was defeated in the Lok Sabha for want of the special majority.
Other debates: No sub-quota for OBC women, no reservation in the Rajya Sabha and Legislative Councils, and rotation of seats weakening constituency nursing.

A balanced conclusion

The principle is settled; the delay is political and procedural. Linking the quota to a fresh delimitation has kept a constitutional promise waiting.

Study the topic: Women's Reservation Act: The 106th Amendment Explained · Constitution (131st Amendment) Bill Negatived

Sources: Women's Reservation Bill (Wikipedia); Constitution (131st Amendment) Bill, 2026 (Wikipedia)

GS II Q3Polity

Examine whether the constitutional office of the Lok Sabha Speaker has become vulnerable to partisan politics under the current anti-defection regime. What institutional changes are required to ensure the neutrality of the Lok Sabha Speaker in managing a polarised House?

10 marks150 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

Examine Probe the issue in depth: Causes, evidence and consequences.

For Polity: Quote Articles, landmark cases and committees by name; end with a balanced way forward.

For this question: Cite Kihoto Hollohan and the Keisham three-month direction; both are standard for this topic.

What the question asks

Two parts: Examine whether the Speaker's role under the anti-defection law has made the office partisan, then suggest institutional reforms.

A strong opening

The Speaker is meant to be the neutral guardian of the House. The Tenth Schedule, added by the 52nd Amendment in 1985, also made the Speaker the judge of whether members of their own and rival parties should be disqualified.

Points to cover

Why the office looks vulnerable

The Speaker is elected from the ruling party and usually returns to party politics, so rulings on defection can be read as partisan.
Delay has been used as a weapon: Petitions against defectors who strengthen the ruling side have been left pending for years.
In Kihoto Hollohan (1992) the Supreme Court upheld the Speaker's role but made decisions open to judicial review; in Keisham Meghachandra Singh (2020) it said petitions should ordinarily be decided within three months and asked Parliament to consider an independent tribunal.

Reforms

Move disqualification decisions to an independent body, such as the President or Governor acting on the Election Commission's advice (as the Dinesh Goswami Committee and Law Commission suggested), or a tribunal.
Fix a statutory time limit for deciding petitions.
Follow the British convention: A Speaker who resigns from the party and is returned unopposed.
Limit the whip to votes of confidence and money bills so members can speak freely on other matters.

A balanced conclusion

The Speaker's authority depends on being seen as above party; taking the defection jury out of the chair would protect both the office and the law.

Study the topic: Anti-Defection Law: The Tenth Schedule Explained

Sources: Anti-defection law (India) (Wikipedia); Supreme Court: Keisham Meghachandra Singh v Speaker, Manipur (21 January 2020)

GS II Q4Polity

Is the right to vote a fundamental right? Discuss the position of the Election Commission of India while undertaking the revision of electoral rolls. Can it also examine the question of citizenship of voters?

10 marks150 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

Discuss Cover the main aspects, with arguments on more than one side.
Examine Probe the issue in depth: Causes, evidence and consequences.

For Polity: Quote Articles, landmark cases and committees by name; end with a balanced way forward.

For this question: Answer the three questions in order, one short paragraph each, and cite Article 326.

What the question asks

Three short answers in one: The legal status of the right to vote, the Election Commission's power to revise rolls, and whether that power extends to citizenship.

A strong opening

The right to vote is not a fundamental right in India. It is a constitutional right under Article 326 (adult suffrage), exercised as a statutory right under the Representation of the People Acts.

Points to cover

Status of the right

Courts have described it as a statutory right (N.P. Ponnuswami, Jyoti Basu); in Anoop Baranwal (2023) the Court spoke of it as more than a mere statutory right, but it is not listed in Part III.

The Election Commission and revision of rolls

Article 324 vests superintendence of the preparation of electoral rolls in the Commission; Section 21 of the Representation of the People Act, 1950 provides for intensive or summary revision.
On 27 May 2026, in Association for Democratic Reforms v Election Commission of India, the Supreme Court upheld the Special Intensive Revision as traceable to Section 21(3) of the RP Act read with Article 324, and as proportionate, with safeguards against arbitrary exclusion.

Can it decide citizenship?

Only citizens can be enrolled (Article 326), so the Court held that the Commission may make a limited enquiry into citizenship to satisfy itself that a person is eligible for the roll.
That enquiry is not a determination of citizenship in the strict sense: Its effect is confined to the electoral roll, it does not take away anyone's claim to citizenship, and where the Commission is not satisfied it must refer the person to the competent authority under the Citizenship Act.

A balanced conclusion

Clean rolls are essential, but exclusion must follow notice, a hearing and appeal, so that no eligible voter loses the franchise through a paperwork gap.

Study the topic: Supreme Court Upholds the ECI's Special Intensive Revision of Electoral Rolls

Sources: Supreme Court: ADR v Election Commission of India, judgment of 27 May 2026 (2026 INSC 564)

GS II Q5Polity

Do constitutional bodies like the National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) and the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) possess adequate enforcement powers to secure substantive social equality? Suggest measures to enhance their institutional effectiveness.

10 marks150 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

Suggest End with practical, specific measures, not general wishes.

For Polity: Quote Articles, landmark cases and committees by name; end with a balanced way forward.

For this question: Separate "powers they have" from "powers they lack" before suggesting reforms.

What the question asks

Judge whether the NCSC and NCST have enough power to secure real equality, then suggest measures. A clear answer: They have strong investigative powers but no power to enforce.

A strong opening

The National Commission for Scheduled Castes (Article 338) and the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (Article 338A, created by the 89th Amendment in 2003) are constitutional watchdogs for the rights of SCs and STs.

Points to cover

Powers they hold

They investigate and monitor safeguards, inquire into complaints, and while doing so have the powers of a civil court: Summoning persons, requiring documents, receiving evidence on affidavit.
They report to the President, and the reports are laid before Parliament; the Union and States must consult them on major policy matters affecting these groups.

Why this falls short

Their recommendations are advisory; no one is bound to act on them.
Reports are often laid late, with thin action-taken memoranda.
Staff shortages, vacancies in membership, and dependence on the ministries they oversee.
Atrocity cases still show low conviction rates, and discrimination in jobs, housing and education persists.

Measures

Time-bound, reasoned action-taken reports on each recommendation; independent budgets and staff; regional offices; power to seek compliance reports and to approach courts; and data-sharing with police and NCRB.

A balanced conclusion

The commissions can expose injustice but cannot compel a remedy; giving their findings binding follow-up is the step from formal to substantive equality.

Study the topic: Reservation in India · Social Justice: Caste, Reservation and the Dalit Movement

Sources: National Commission for Scheduled Castes (Wikipedia); National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (Wikipedia)

GS II Q6Social Justice

Does India's tribal development policy reflect the aspirations for a socially grounded and equity-based governance? Justify your answer.

10 marks150 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

Justify Give reasons and evidence that support the position asked for.

For Social Justice: Cite the Act, the scheme and one data point on the group affected.

For this question: Justify with one success (FRA, PESA) and one gap (consent bypassed).

What the question asks

Justify your view: Judge whether tribal development policy has respected tribal voice and equity, with evidence on both sides.

A strong opening

India's tribal policy began with Nehru's Panchsheel for tribal areas (1958), which promised development along the lines of tribal genius, without imposing outside ways. The record since has mixed real protections with persistent dispossession.

Points to cover

Where policy reflects these aspirations

The Fifth and Sixth Schedules give special administration and autonomous councils.
PESA, 1996 makes the gram sabha central to decisions on land, minor forest produce and local resources in Fifth Schedule areas.
The Forest Rights Act, 2006 recognises individual and community forest rights.
The Tribal Sub-Plan, now the Development Action Plan for STs, earmarks funds; PM-JANMAN targets particularly vulnerable tribal groups.

Where it falls short

PESA rules are yet to be framed or fully applied in several States, and gram sabha consent is often bypassed for mines and dams.
Many forest-rights claims have been rejected, and displacement by projects has hit tribal people hardest.
Health, nutrition and education indicators for STs remain well behind the national average.

What would make it equity-based

Real gram sabha consent, faster forest-rights recognition, benefit sharing from minerals (the District Mineral Foundations), and education in tribal languages.

A balanced conclusion

The laws already express a socially grounded vision; the gap is in implementation and in who decides. Governance becomes equitable when tribal communities hold the decision, not only the benefit.

Study the topic: PM-JANMAN: Welfare of Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups

Sources: Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (Wikipedia); Forest Rights Act, 2006 (Wikipedia); Panchsheel (tribal policy): Verrier Elwin (Wikipedia)

GS II Q7Social Justice

Malnutrition in India is not merely a public health concern; it is also a challenge of social equity, human development and effective welfare governance. Discuss.

10 marks150 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

Discuss Cover the main aspects, with arguments on more than one side.

For Social Justice: Cite the Act, the scheme and one data point on the group affected.

For this question: Use one NFHS figure and cover all four lenses named in the question.

What the question asks

Discuss malnutrition on four planes named in the question: Public health, social equity, human development and welfare governance.

A strong opening

Malnutrition covers undernutrition (stunting, wasting, underweight), micronutrient deficiency such as anaemia, and the rising problem of obesity. It is shaped as much by poverty, gender and caste as by food.

Points to cover

A public-health issue

NFHS-6 (2023-24) shows child stunting down to 29.3 per cent from 35.5 per cent in NFHS-5, but anaemia among women and children remains widespread.

A question of social equity

Rates are higher among SC and ST households, the poorest wealth quintile and children of mothers with little schooling; women often eat last and least.

A human-development challenge

Stunting in the first 1,000 days affects cognition, schooling and adult earnings, reducing the demographic dividend.

A test of welfare governance

Programmes exist: POSHAN Abhiyaan, the ICDS and Anganwadis, PM POSHAN school meals, fortified rice through the PDS, and the Poshan Tracker.
Gaps: Convergence between health, nutrition, water and sanitation departments, Anganwadi infrastructure, and data quality.

A balanced conclusion

Nutrition improves fastest when food, health, sanitation and women's education move together; treating it as a rights and equity issue, not only a scheme target, is the key.

Study the topic: POSHAN Abhiyaan: The National Nutrition Mission · NFHS-6 (2023-24): Findings and Significance · ICDS and Anganwadi: Child Development

Sources: Malnutrition in India (Wikipedia); PIB: Union Health Ministry releases NFHS-6 (29 May 2026)

GS II Q8Governance

Analyse the advantages and limitations of the generalist structure of the Indian Civil Services in contemporary governance.

10 marks150 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

Analyse Break the topic into its parts and explain how they connect.

For Governance: Name the law, scheme or commission, add one example of good practice, and close with reforms.

For this question: Name the Second ARC's domain-assignment idea in your reforms.

What the question asks

Analyse both the strengths and the weaknesses of the generalist civil service model, and end with reforms.

A strong opening

India's higher civil services, led by the IAS, follow a generalist model inherited from the British: Officers move across sectors every few years rather than specialising in one field.

Points to cover

Advantages

A wide view across departments helps coordination, which district administration and crisis management need.
Field experience gives officers a grasp of ground realities that specialists may lack.
Mobility across States and the centre builds a national outlook and administrative uniformity.

Limitations

Governance today needs expertise in areas like finance, technology, climate and health; frequent transfers prevent depth.
Generalists dominate senior posts even in technical ministries, which can demoralise specialist services.
Rule-bound caution and weak performance appraisal slow innovation.

Reforms under way and suggested

Domain assignment after an initial period (the Second Administrative Reforms Commission's recommendation), mid-career training, and lateral entry of specialists at joint secretary level.
Mission Karmayogi's competency-based capacity building, and stable tenures.

A balanced conclusion

The answer is not to discard the generalist but to build specialisation on top of the field experience: A 'generalist-specialist' officer.

Study the topic: Mission Karmayogi: Civil Services Capacity Building

Sources: Indian Administrative Service (Wikipedia); Administrative Reforms Commission (Wikipedia); PIB: Cabinet approves Mission Karmayogi (NPCSCB)

GS II Q9International Relations

"IPMDA (Indo-Pacific Partnership for Maritime Domain Awareness) bridges the gap between India's SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) vision and the Quad's collective Indo-Pacific strategy." Make a critical assessment of the statement focusing on IPMDA.

10 marks150 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

Critical assessment Judge how far the claim holds, with strengths, limits and a verdict.

For International Relations: A small map helps; state India's interest plainly and name agreements and groupings.

For this question: Explain what IPMDA does (tracking dark vessels) before assessing it.

What the question asks

Critically assess the claim that IPMDA links India's SAGAR vision with the Quad's Indo-Pacific agenda: Explain IPMDA, show where it fits SAGAR, and note its limits.

A strong opening

The Indo-Pacific Partnership for Maritime Domain Awareness (IPMDA) was launched by the Quad at its Tokyo summit in 2022. It gives partner countries near real-time data on activity at sea, including 'dark' vessels that switch off their transponders.

Points to cover

What IPMDA does

Uses commercial satellite radio-frequency data to track shipping, helping small states watch their Exclusive Economic Zones.
Aimed at illegal fishing, smuggling, piracy, and humanitarian and disaster response.
Links regional fusion centres, including India's Information Fusion Centre for the Indian Ocean Region in Gurugram.

How it bridges SAGAR and the Quad

SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region, 2015), extended as MAHASAGAR in 2025, commits India to be a security provider for Indian Ocean neighbours; IPMDA gives it tools to share.
It lets the Quad offer a public good rather than a military bloc, which is easier for Indian Ocean states to accept.

Limits

Awareness is not enforcement: Small states lack patrol ships to act on what they see.
Uneven data sharing, and concern among some states about being drawn into great-power rivalry with China.
Coverage has so far focused more on the Pacific Islands and South-East Asia than on the western Indian Ocean.

A balanced conclusion

IPMDA does bridge the two frameworks, but its value to SAGAR depends on India pairing data with capacity building: Ships, training and hydrography for its neighbours.

Study the topic: The Quad: Members, Evolution and India's Role · Ninth Indian Ocean Conference, Mauritius 2026

Sources: Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Wikipedia); Information Fusion Centre for the Indian Ocean Region (Wikipedia); PIB: PM's press statement, India-Mauritius (March 2025)

GS II Q10International Relations

"BRICS acts as a powerful counterweight in global governance, actively amplifying the voice and influence of the Global South." Explain the role of BRICS in projecting itself as an alternative to other groupings.

10 marks150 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

Explain Say what it is and why or how it happens, step by step.

For International Relations: A small map helps; state India's interest plainly and name agreements and groupings.

For this question: Name the New Development Bank and the expansion; then give the limits.

What the question asks

Explain how BRICS presents itself as an alternative to Western-led groupings, with its institutions and its limits.

A strong opening

BRICS began as Brazil, Russia, India and China; South Africa joined in 2010. After enlargement in 2024 and 2025, official BRICS and Government of India material counts eleven members, including Saudi Arabia, which has not formally confirmed that it joined. India holds the chair in 2026.

Points to cover

How it projects an alternative

Institutions: The New Development Bank (Shanghai) and the Contingent Reserve Arrangement, alternatives to World Bank and IMF lending.
Agenda: Reform of the UN Security Council, IMF quotas and the WTO; a larger voice for developing countries.
Expansion: Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran and the UAE joined in 2024 and Indonesia in 2025 (Saudi Arabia was invited in 2023 and is listed as a member, though it has not formally confirmed), widening its Global South base.
Payments: Talk of trade in local currencies to reduce dependence on the dollar.

Limits

Members disagree deeply, notably India and China on the border and on Chinese dominance.
It has no common position on Russia's war or on sanctions, and its declarations are broad.
India opposes turning BRICS into an anti-Western or de-dollarisation bloc, preferring 'reformed multilateralism'.

India's approach as chair

India uses BRICS to amplify the Global South while also working with the Quad and G7, a multi-alignment strategy.

A balanced conclusion

BRICS is less a counterweight than a pressure group for a fairer order; its influence depends on turning its size into concrete institutions without becoming a China-led bloc.

Study the topic: BRICS Foreign Ministers' Meeting 2026: India's Chairship

Sources: BRICS (Wikipedia); BRICS (Wikipedia): Status of Saudi Arabia and the 2026 presidency

GS II Q11Polity

Discuss the position of the Governor in the federal polity of India. What is the nature of his power while giving assent to a bill passed by the State Legislature? Is he bound by the aid and advice of his Council of Ministers in all his functions?

15 marks250 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

Discuss Cover the main aspects, with arguments on more than one side.
Explain Say what it is and why or how it happens, step by step.

For Polity: Quote Articles, landmark cases and committees by name; end with a balanced way forward.

For this question: Use the three Article 200 options and the 2025 Presidential Reference opinion.

What the question asks

Three parts: The Governor's place in the federal polity, the nature of the assent power under Article 200, and whether the Governor is bound by ministerial advice in all functions.

A strong opening

The Governor is the constitutional head of the State, appointed by the President and holding office during the President's pleasure. The office is meant to link the Union and the State, but has become a point of friction in opposition-ruled States.

Points to cover

Position in the federal polity

Acts on the advice of the State Council of Ministers in most matters (Article 163), like the President at the centre.
Also an agent of the Union: Reports under Article 356, reservation of Bills for the President.
Sarkaria and Punchhi Commissions urged neutral appointees and consultation with the Chief Minister.

Assent to Bills (Article 200)

Options: Assent, withhold assent and return the Bill for reconsideration (not a Money Bill), or reserve it for the President. If the legislature passes it again, the Governor cannot withhold assent.
In State of Tamil Nadu v Governor of Tamil Nadu (April 2025) the Court set timelines and deemed ten pending Bills to have received assent.
On a Presidential Reference, a five-judge bench advised on 20 November 2025 that courts cannot fix rigid timelines or declare 'deemed assent', but the Governor cannot sit on Bills indefinitely: Withholding must be joined to returning the Bill, and prolonged inaction can be examined by courts.

Is the Governor always bound by advice?

No. The Constitution gives discretion in some matters: Reserving certain Bills, reporting under Article 356, special responsibilities under Articles 371 to 371J, Sixth Schedule functions, and appointing a Chief Minister when no party has a majority.
In Shamsher Singh (1974) and Nabam Rebia (2016) the Court held that discretion is narrow and must not override the elected government.

A balanced conclusion

The Governor works best as a constitutional sentinel, not a political agent; timely action on Bills and restraint in discretion are what cooperative federalism asks of the office.

Study the topic: Powers of the Governor: Executive, Legislative, Ordinance, Assent and Discretion · Governor of a State: Appointment, Tenure, Removal

Sources: In re: Assent, Withholding or Reservation of Bills (Wikipedia); State of Tamil Nadu v. Governor of Tamil Nadu (Wikipedia); Nabam Rebia (Wikipedia)

GS II Q12Polity

What is meant by judicial legislation? In this context, discuss the verdicts of the apex court allowing "passive euthanasia" and a "living will".

15 marks250 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

Define Open with a precise definition before anything else.
Discuss Cover the main aspects, with arguments on more than one side.

For Polity: Quote Articles, landmark cases and committees by name; end with a balanced way forward.

For this question: Define judicial legislation first, then use Common Cause (2018) as the core example.

What the question asks

Define judicial legislation (the courts filling gaps in law), then use the euthanasia judgments as the example and judge whether the Court overstepped.

A strong opening

Judicial legislation refers to courts laying down binding rules where the legislature has not acted, usually through Articles 32, 141 and 142. It fills gaps but raises questions about the separation of powers.

Points to cover

The euthanasia rulings

Aruna Shanbaug (2011): The Court rejected the plea for that patient but allowed passive euthanasia in principle, with High Court approval.
Common Cause (2018): A five-judge bench held that the right to die with dignity is part of Article 21, recognised living wills (advance directives) and laid down detailed procedure.
In 2023 the Court simplified that procedure, replacing the magistrate's role with hospital medical boards and time limits.
Harish Rana (11 March 2026): The first order allowing withdrawal of life support for a named patient, treating artificial nutrition as medical treatment that can be withdrawn.

Why this counts as judicial legislation

There is still no parliamentary law on euthanasia or advance directives; the procedure itself comes from the judgments.

Justified or overreach?

For: Article 21 rights needed protection and Parliament had not legislated; the guidelines are interim until it does.
Against: Complex ethical and medical rules are better set by an elected legislature after public debate.

A balanced conclusion

Judicial guidelines are a bridge, not a substitute; a comprehensive law on end-of-life care would give doctors and families clearer, democratically settled rules.

Sources: Euthanasia in India (Wikipedia); Aruna Shanbaug case (Wikipedia); Harish Rana v. Union of India (Wikipedia)

GS II Q13Polity

How far has the Indian federal framework been successful in accommodating regional and cultural diversities? Highlight the role of asymmetric federalism and suggest measures to make dispute resolution mechanisms more effective.

15 marks250 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

How far Answer with a measured extent: To a large extent, partly, or little, with reasons.
Highlight Bring out the key points clearly, ideally as short numbered points.
Suggest End with practical, specific measures, not general wishes.

For Polity: Quote Articles, landmark cases and committees by name; end with a balanced way forward.

For this question: Name Article 371, the Sixth Schedule and the Inter-State Council (Article 263).

What the question asks

Three parts: Judge how well Indian federalism has accommodated diversity, explain asymmetric federalism's role, and suggest better dispute resolution.

A strong opening

India was designed as a 'Union of States' with a strong centre, but it has accommodated linguistic, ethnic and regional diversity by giving different regions different arrangements.

Points to cover

Accommodation that has worked

Linguistic States after 1956 and new States such as Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand (2000) and Telangana (2014).
The Sixth Schedule's autonomous district councils in the north-east; Fifth Schedule protection in tribal areas.
Official-language flexibility and the Eighth Schedule.

Asymmetric federalism

Article 371 to 371J give special provisions to States such as Nagaland and Mizoram (customary law and land), Sikkim and others.
Different arrangements for Union Territories, including Delhi and Puducherry with legislatures; Jammu and Kashmir's special status under Article 370 ended in 2019.
This flexibility has helped settle insurgencies (the Mizo Accord, 1986).

Where it strains

Inter-State river disputes that drag for decades, border disputes (Assam-Mizoram), friction over Governors, fiscal devolution and GST compensation.

Better dispute resolution

Make the Inter-State Council (Article 263) meet regularly, as the Punchhi Commission urged.
A permanent water disputes tribunal with time limits; the GST Council's own dispute mechanism; zonal councils used for real bargaining.

A balanced conclusion

Indian federalism has held diversity together through flexibility; making its dispute forums regular and time-bound would add trust to that flexibility.

Study the topic: Federal Features of the Indian Constitution · Sixteenth Finance Commission: The 2026-31 Award

Sources: Inter-State Council (Wikipedia); Mizo Peace Accord (Wikipedia)

GS II Q14Polity

Examine how the separation of powers is practised in India compared to the rigid presidential model of the United States of America. In this context, compare the actual authority of the Indian Prime Minister with that of the President of the USA.

15 marks250 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

Examine Probe the issue in depth: Causes, evidence and consequences.
Compare Set out similarities and differences on the same heads.

For Polity: Quote Articles, landmark cases and committees by name; end with a balanced way forward.

For this question: A comparison table of the two systems saves words and scores well.

What the question asks

Two comparisons: Separation of powers in India versus the US presidential system, then the real power of India's Prime Minister versus the US President.

A strong opening

The US Constitution separates legislature, executive and judiciary sharply, with checks and balances. India follows the parliamentary model, where the executive comes from and answers to the legislature, so the separation is functional rather than rigid.

Points to cover

Separation of powers compared

USA: The President is elected separately for a fixed four-year term, cannot sit in or dissolve Congress, and needs the Senate to confirm appointments and ratify treaties.
India: Ministers must be members of Parliament, the government survives only with the Lok Sabha's confidence, and the executive also makes delegated legislation and ordinances.
Indian courts protect the separation through judicial review and the basic structure (Kesavananda Bharati, 1973), though executive and legislature overlap by design.

The Prime Minister and the US President

The US President is head of state and government with a fixed term, but faces a Congress that may be controlled by the other party, and vetoes can be overridden.
The Indian Prime Minister leads the majority in the Lok Sabha, so with a stable majority can pass laws, control the agenda and choose the timing of elections; but can be removed by a no-confidence vote and depends on party and coalition support.
In practice a Prime Minister with a clear majority can wield more legislative power than a US President facing a divided Congress, while a coalition Prime Minister can be weaker.

A balanced conclusion

India chose accountability over rigidity: The executive is stronger inside Parliament but can be removed by it, whereas the US executive is secure in office yet checked at every step.

Study the topic: Prime Minister of India: Appointment, Powers and Role · Union Council of Ministers, Cabinet and Collective Responsibility

Sources: Separation of powers (Wikipedia); President of the United States (Wikipedia); Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (Wikipedia)

GS II Q15Polity

To what extent do pressure groups, social movements and corporate lobbies deepen pluralistic democracy in India by representing excluded interests? Analyse whether the growing convergence of corporate wealth and political power poses a threat to the autonomy of formal democratic institutions.

15 marks250 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

To what extent Answer with a measured extent, backed by evidence on both sides.
Analyse Break the topic into its parts and explain how they connect.

For Polity: Quote Articles, landmark cases and committees by name; end with a balanced way forward.

For this question: Give one movement that deepened democracy (RTI) and one risk (opaque funding).

What the question asks

Two parts: How far pressure groups, movements and lobbies deepen pluralist democracy by voicing excluded interests, and whether the money-power link threatens democratic institutions.

A strong opening

In a pluralist democracy, organised groups carry people's interests to government between elections. In India these range from farmers' unions and trade unions to social movements and industry chambers.

Points to cover

How they deepen democracy

Social movements have won rights for the excluded: The Right to Information movement (MKSS) led to the RTI Act, 2005; the Narmada Bachao Andolan put displacement and rehabilitation on the agenda; Dalit, tribal and women's movements shaped laws.
Farmers' unions forced the repeal of the three farm laws in 2021.
Business associations like CII and FICCI bring expertise into policy.

Limits of their inclusiveness

The best-organised interests gain most; the poorest and most scattered groups (informal workers, migrants) remain weakly represented.

The corporate wealth and power problem

Opaque political funding: The Supreme Court struck down electoral bonds in February 2024 (ADR v Union of India) because anonymity violated voters' right to information.
Risks: Policy capture, crony capitalism, influence over media, and the 'revolving door' between regulators and industry.

Safeguards

Transparent political funding, a lobbying disclosure law, independent regulators, cooling-off rules for officials, and strong institutions such as the CAG, Election Commission and courts.

A balanced conclusion

Organised voices strengthen democracy when access is open to all; when wealth buys disproportionate access, transparency rules are what keep pluralism from turning into plutocracy.

Study the topic: Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005

Sources: Electoral bond (Wikipedia); Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (Wikipedia); Indian farmers' protest of 2020 and 2021 (Wikipedia)

GS II Q16Governance

"Transparency and accountability in governance are not about controlling corruption but about creating the trust of stakeholders in the policy process by following the Rule of Law and Participatory Governance." Comment.

15 marks250 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

Comment Give your opinion on the statement, backed by reasons and evidence.

For Governance: Name the law, scheme or commission, add one example of good practice, and close with reforms.

For this question: Agree with the statement and show how participation builds trust.

What the question asks

Comment on the claim that transparency and accountability are mainly about building trust in policy through rule of law and participation, not only about fighting corruption.

A strong opening

Transparency means that information about decisions is open; accountability means that those who decide must answer for the results. Both reduce corruption, but their deeper purpose is legitimacy: People accept policies they can see and influence.

Points to cover

Beyond anti-corruption

Open information lets citizens understand why a policy was chosen, which builds acceptance even when they disagree.
Predictable rules (rule of law) give investors and citizens confidence that decisions will not be arbitrary.

Participation as the missing link

Social audits (first mandated under the rural employment guarantee), gram sabhas, public hearings for environmental clearances, and pre-legislative consultation.
Citizen charters and grievance redress (CPGRAMS) turn transparency into responsiveness.

Tools India uses

RTI Act, 2005; the Lokpal; e-procurement; direct benefit transfer; dashboards for schemes; proactive disclosure under Section 4 of the RTI Act.

Gaps

Pending RTI appeals and vacancies in information commissions; limited use of pre-legislative consultation; weak follow-up of social audit findings.

A balanced conclusion

The statement is right: Controlling corruption is a result, but the aim is trust. Governance earns trust when people can see, question and shape what is decided for them.

Study the topic: Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005 · Digital India Programme: E-Governance and the Citizen Platforms

Sources: Right to Information Act, 2005 (Wikipedia); Social audit (Wikipedia)

GS II Q17Governance

Can the constitutional mandate of rights-based welfare be effectively realised in the context of non-integrated governance and minimal public investment? Examine.

15 marks250 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

Examine Probe the issue in depth: Causes, evidence and consequences.

For Governance: Name the law, scheme or commission, add one example of good practice, and close with reforms.

For this question: Say "only partly" up front and name the fixes: Convergence, funds, frontline capacity.

What the question asks

Examine whether welfare rights promised by the Constitution can be delivered when departments work in silos and public spending is low. The expected answer: Only partly, with reforms needed.

A strong opening

Rights-based welfare turns benefits into legal entitlements: The rights to education (Article 21A), food (National Food Security Act, 2013) and work (the rural employment guarantee). A right, however, is only as good as the system that delivers it.

Points to cover

Why delivery suffers

Non-integrated governance: Nutrition depends on health, water, sanitation and women's welfare, handled by separate ministries with separate data.
Low public investment: India's public spending on health is low by international standards, and schools and Anganwadis often lack staff and buildings.
Centrally sponsored schemes with rigid designs, delayed fund release and weak local capacity.

What has worked despite this

Legal entitlements have given citizens a basis to claim: The right-to-food case law, social audits, grievance systems.
Technology such as direct benefit transfers improved reach and cut leakage.
The rural employment guarantee was revamped in 2025 (the VB-G RAM G Act), raising the guaranteed days from 100 to 125.

Making rights real

Convergence at the district and panchayat level, pooled funds, adequate budgets for frontline workers, and outcome-based monitoring.

A balanced conclusion

Rights on paper need institutions on the ground; without integration and investment, entitlements become targets rather than guarantees.

Study the topic: VB-G RAM G Act, 2025: The Statute That Replaced MGNREGA · Directive Principles of State Policy

Sources: National Food Security Act, 2013 (Wikipedia); PIB: VB-G RAM G Act to come into force from 1 July 2026

GS II Q18Social Justice

Should education be treated primarily as a welfare obligation of the state or as a strategic investment for building a globally competitive, knowledge-driven nation? Critically evaluate.

15 marks250 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

Critically evaluate Weigh merits and demerits, then state your verdict and why.

For Social Justice: Cite the Act, the scheme and one data point on the group affected.

For this question: Refuse the false choice: Education is welfare and investment together.

What the question asks

Critically evaluate a false choice: Education is both a welfare obligation and a strategic investment. Show both views and how they can be combined.

A strong opening

The Constitution treats education as a right: Article 21A, added by the 86th Amendment (2002), makes free and compulsory education a fundamental right for children aged 6 to 14. Economists treat it as the main investment in human capital.

Points to cover

Education as a welfare obligation

Equal opportunity for the poor, girls, SCs, STs and minorities; the RTE Act, 2009 and the 25 per cent quota in private schools.
Foundational literacy and numeracy for every child as the base of citizenship.

Education as a strategic investment

A knowledge economy needs research, higher education and skills; India's spending on research is low as a share of GDP.
NEP 2020 sets a goal of 6 per cent of GDP for public spending on education and 50 per cent gross enrolment in higher education by 2035.

Why the two need each other

Without equity, strategic investment benefits a narrow elite and wastes talent; without quality and research, welfare schooling does not produce employable graduates.
Learning outcomes (as shown by national surveys) lag enrolment, which is a problem for both goals.

A balanced conclusion

Education is best seen as welfare that is also investment: Universal quality schooling is the foundation on which a competitive knowledge economy is built.

Study the topic: National Education Policy 2020: India's Education Reform Explained

Sources: Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 (Wikipedia); National Education Policy 2020 (Wikipedia); PIB: 50% GER by 2035

GS II Q19International Relations

"India's global diaspora acts as a living bridge, as a critical economic factor and knowledge network in transforming cultural heritage into geopolitical influence and strategic leverage worldwide." Critically examine this statement.

15 marks250 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

Critically examine Look at both sides with evidence, then give a reasoned judgement.

For International Relations: A small map helps; state India's interest plainly and name agreements and groupings.

For this question: Cover all three roles in the statement and add the limits (Gulf workers).

What the question asks

Critically examine the diaspora's three roles named in the statement (living bridge, economic factor, knowledge network) and whether it truly converts culture into influence.

A strong opening

India has the world's largest diaspora, with a presence from the Gulf to North America. It links India to the world through money, skills, culture and politics.

Points to cover

A living bridge

Cultural presence (festivals, yoga, cuisine, cinema) and political weight in host countries, including Indian-origin leaders in several governments.
Pravasi Bharatiya Divas, the OCI card and diaspora outreach during leaders' visits.

An economic factor

India is the largest recipient of remittances in the world, a steady source of foreign exchange.
Diaspora investment and entrepreneurship, especially in technology.

A knowledge network

Diaspora scientists, engineers and executives link India to global technology and research; returning talent seeds start-ups.

Limits

Influence is uneven: Gulf workers, the largest group, have little political voice and face poor labour conditions.
Diaspora politics can import domestic divisions, and separatist groups abroad can strain relations (as with Canada).
Brain drain and the vulnerability of workers in crises (evacuations from Ukraine, Sudan and West Asia).

A balanced conclusion

The diaspora is a real strategic asset, but it becomes leverage only when India protects its workers abroad and engages it as a partner rather than an audience.

Sources: Indian diaspora (Wikipedia); Remittances to India (Wikipedia: Remittances to India); Overseas Citizenship of India (Wikipedia)

GS II Q20International Relations

"China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) has transformed South Asia from a regional space into a theatre of great power competition." Analyse the strategic implications of the BRI for India's security and regional influence in South Asia.

15 marks250 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

Analyse Break the topic into its parts and explain how they connect.

For International Relations: A small map helps; state India's interest plainly and name agreements and groupings.

For this question: Name CPEC, Gwadar and Hambantota, then India's alternatives.

What the question asks

Analyse the strategic implications of China's Belt and Road Initiative for India in South Asia: Security, economic and diplomatic, and how India has responded.

A strong opening

The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), launched by China in 2013, finances ports, roads, railways and power plants across Asia and beyond. In South Asia it has drawn India's neighbours into China's economic orbit.

Points to cover

Security implications

The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor passes through Gilgit-Baltistan, territory India claims, which is why India has refused to join the BRI.
Ports such as Gwadar (Pakistan) and Hambantota (Sri Lanka, leased to a Chinese firm for 99 years in 2017) raise fears of dual-use naval access, the 'string of pearls'.
Chinese research and survey vessels visiting Sri Lankan and Maldivian ports.

Economic and influence implications

Neighbours gain infrastructure but also debt: Sri Lanka's 2022 crisis sharpened the debate on 'debt traps'.
Nepal, Bangladesh and the Maldives have used Chinese offers to bargain with India.

India's response

Neighbourhood First: Lines of credit, grants and quick crisis support (about 4 billion dollars to Sri Lanka in 2022).
Alternatives: Chabahar port, the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor, BBIN connectivity, and Quad infrastructure and maritime cooperation.
Principles: India insists that connectivity must respect sovereignty, be transparent and be financially sustainable.

A balanced conclusion

The BRI has made South Asia contested space; India's influence depends less on matching China's money than on delivering projects faster and being the first responder its neighbours trust.

Study the topic: India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC)

Sources: Belt and Road Initiative (Wikipedia); China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (Wikipedia); Hambantota International Port (Wikipedia)

Questions students ask

UPSC Mains 2026 GS Paper 2: Common Questions

How many questions were asked in UPSC Mains 2026 GS Paper 2?

GS Paper 2 of UPSC Mains 2026, held on 22 August 2026, had 20 questions on polity, governance, social justice, international relations. The paper carried 250 marks and three hours.

Which topics did UPSC Mains 2026 GS Paper 2 cover?

By topic, the questions were: Polity (9), Social Justice (4), International Relations (4), Governance (3).

Does UPSC publish answers for Mains 2026 GS Paper 2?

No. UPSC publishes the question paper but not model answers. The answer frameworks on this page are written by Digitally Learn to show what each question asks and the points a good answer covers.

Questions are reproduced from the official question papers published by the Union Public Service Commission. UPSC does not publish model answers for the Main examination; the answer frameworks are written by Digitally Learn and are its copyright. upsc.gov.in