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UPSC Mains 2025 · General Studies Paper II

UPSC Mains 2025 GS Paper 2 Questions with Answer Frameworks

All 20 questions of General Studies Paper II, UPSC Mains 2025, held on 23 August 2025, each with an answer framework that shows what the question asks, a strong opening, the points to cover and a balanced conclusion.

  • 23 August 2025Exam date
  • 20Questions
  • 250Marks
  • 3 hoursTime
See the questions Official PDF Answer booklet
GS Paper 2 in other years:202620252024

UPSC Mains 2025 GS Paper 2 Questions

GS II Q1Polity

Discuss the 'corrupt practices' for the purpose of the Representation of the People Act, 1951. Analyze whether the increase in the assets of the legislators and/or their associates, disproportionate to their known sources of income, would constitute 'undue influence' and consequently a corrupt practice.

10 marks150 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

  • Discuss Cover the main aspects, with arguments on more than one side.
  • Analyse Break the topic into its parts and explain how they connect.

For Polity: Quote Articles, landmark cases and committees by name; end with a balanced way forward.

For this question: Quote section 123(2) on undue influence, then bring in Lok Prahari (2018) for the second half.

What the question asks

Explain what the Representation of the People Act, 1951 treats as corrupt practices, then analyse whether a legislator's unexplained growth in assets (or that of associates) can count as 'undue influence' and so as a corrupt practice.

A strong opening

Section 123 of the Representation of the People Act, 1951 lists the corrupt practices that can make an election void when proved in an election petition under section 100. They are acts that corrupt the free choice of the voter.

Points to cover

Corrupt practices under section 123

  • Bribery (123(1)): Any gift, offer or promise of gratification to induce a person to stand or not stand, or an elector to vote or not vote; gratification is not limited to money.
  • Undue influence (123(2)): Any direct or indirect interference, or attempt to interfere, with the free exercise of any electoral right, including threats of injury or social ostracism and the use of divine displeasure.
  • Others include appeals on the ground of religion, race, caste, community or language (123(3)), promoting enmity between classes (123(3A)), false statements about a candidate's personal character (123(4)), hired vehicles to carry voters, excess election expenditure, help from government servants, and booth capturing.

The case for treating unexplained assets as undue influence

  • In Lok Prahari v. Union of India (16 February 2018) the Supreme Court held that non-disclosure of the assets and sources of income of candidates and their associates is a corrupt practice under the head 'undue influence' in section 123(2).
  • The Court also said that assets of legislators and their associates growing out of proportion to their known incomes is constitutionally impermissible and may eventually amount both to offences under the Prevention of Corruption Act and to undue influence under section 123.
  • Reason: Voters cannot exercise a free and informed choice if a candidate hides wealth that may come from abuse of office; and wealth gained this way can be used to sway voters.

Limits of that view

  • Section 123 speaks of interference with an electoral right during an election; assets gathered between elections are not, by themselves, an act of interference.
  • The Court left it to the legislature to declare undue accretion of assets a ground of disqualification and to set up a permanent mechanism to monitor legislators' assets; it said no writ can compel Parliament to make a law.
A balanced conclusion

Unexplained wealth undermines the voter's informed choice, and the Supreme Court has brought its concealment within undue influence. A clear statutory rule and a standing mechanism to watch legislators' assets would make the principle enforceable.

Study the topic: Delimitation in India and the Representation of the People Acts, 1950 and 1951

Sources: The Representation of the People Act, 1951 (India Code), section 123; Supreme Court of India: Lok Prahari v. Union of India, W.P.(C) 784 of 2015, judgment of 16 February 2018

GS II Q2Polity

Comment on the need of administrative tribunals as compared to the court system. Assess the impact of the recent tribunal reforms through rationalization of tribunals made in 2021.

10 marks150 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

  • Comment Give your opinion on the statement, backed by reasons and evidence.

For Polity: Quote Articles, landmark cases and committees by name; end with a balanced way forward.

For this question: Split the answer: Why tribunals (speed, expertise), then the 2021 reform and what the courts and the 2026 Act did next.

What the question asks

Comment on why administrative tribunals are needed beside the regular courts, then assess what the 2021 reforms that rationalised tribunals achieved, including what followed them.

A strong opening

Articles 323A and 323B, added by the 42nd Amendment in 1976, let Parliament and the State Legislatures set up tribunals for service matters, taxation, labour, land reforms and other subjects. Tribunals were meant to give faster, specialised justice than the overloaded courts.

Points to cover

Why tribunals are needed

  • Speed and specialisation: Members with technical or administrative expertise decide disputes on taxes, telecom, environment or service conditions.
  • Lower cost and flexible procedure: They are not bound by the full rules of civil procedure.
  • Relief to the courts: Large categories of cases leave the High Courts.

Concerns compared with courts

  • Independence: The government, often a party to the dispute, controlled appointments, tenure and service conditions.
  • Vacancies and delays defeated the purpose of speed, and appeals often went straight to the Supreme Court.

The 2021 rationalisation

  • The Tribunals Reforms Act, 2021 (after an ordinance) abolished several appellate bodies, among them the Film Certification Appellate Tribunal, and moved their work to the High Courts and other forums.
  • It made the designations of chairpersons uniform and put appointments in the hands of a Search-cum-Selection Committee.

Impact and the aftermath

  • Positive: Fewer bodies with overlapping roles and a uniform framework.
  • Negative: More load on High Courts; short terms and executive control raised doubts about independence.
  • In Madras Bar Association v. Union of India the Supreme Court struck down provisions of the 2021 Act and directed an independent National Tribunals Commission; the Tribunal Reforms Act, 2026 repealed the 2021 Act and set up that Commission.
A balanced conclusion

Tribunals remain necessary for specialised and speedy justice, but only if they are independent of the government that appears before them. The 2021 reform cut numbers; the 2026 law is the attempt to secure independence.

Study the topic: Tribunal Reforms Act 2026: National Tribunals Commission and Tribunals in India

Sources: The Constitution of India (Legislative Department), Articles 323A and 323B; PIB: Reforming India's Tribunal System, Tribunal Reforms Bill, 2026 (backgrounder, 12 August 2026); Tribunals Reforms Act, 2021 (Wikipedia); Film Certification Appellate Tribunal (Wikipedia)

GS II Q3Polity

Compare and contrast the President's power to pardon in India and in the USA. Are there any limits to it in both the countries? What are 'preemptive pardons'?

10 marks150 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

  • Compare Set out similarities and differences on the same heads.

For Polity: Quote Articles, landmark cases and committees by name; end with a balanced way forward.

For this question: A two-column table (India, USA) for source, scope, decider and limits saves words.

What the question asks

Compare the President's pardoning power in India and in the USA (source, scope, who really decides), set out the limits in each country, and explain what a pre-emptive pardon is.

A strong opening

Both constitutions give the head of state a power of mercy: Article 72 in India and Article II, Section 2 in the United States. The power is the same in spirit but differs sharply in scope and control.

Points to cover

India: Article 72

  • The President may grant pardons, reprieves, respites or remissions, or suspend, remit or commute the sentence of any person convicted of an offence against a Union law, by a court martial, or sentenced to death.
  • The President acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers, not on personal discretion; the Governor has a parallel power under Article 161.

USA: Article II

  • The President may grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, that is, federal offences only; State crimes are outside it.
  • The President decides alone; the power is treated as plenary and Congress cannot restrict it.

Limits in each country

  • India: The power is subject to limited judicial review; courts have examined whether it was exercised without advice, mala fide or on extraneous grounds (Kehar Singh, 1989; Epuru Sudhakar, 2006), and unexplained delay in deciding mercy petitions has been a ground for commuting death sentences (Shatrughan Chauhan, 2014).
  • USA: No pardon in cases of impeachment, and none for State offences; otherwise courts rarely interfere.

Pre-emptive pardons

  • A pre-emptive pardon is granted before any charge or conviction, for offences that may have been committed.
  • Gerald Ford pardoned Richard Nixon on 8 September 1974 for any crimes he might have committed as President; on 1 December 2024 Joe Biden pardoned his son for federal offences committed between 2014 and 2024, including any not yet discovered.
  • Indian practice and Article 72's wording ('any person convicted') tie the power to convicted persons, so a pre-emptive pardon is not a feature of Indian law.
A balanced conclusion

India's pardon power is collective, advised and reviewable; the American power is personal and nearly unlimited. The pre-emptive pardon shows how far the American version can stretch.

Study the topic: Ordinance, Pardon and Emergency Powers of the President: Articles 123, 72, 352 to 360

Sources: The Constitution of India (Legislative Department), Article 72; Supreme Court of India: Shatrughan Chauhan v. Union of India, 21 January 2014; Federal pardons in the United States (Wikipedia); Pardon of Richard Nixon (Wikipedia); Hunter Biden (Wikipedia)

GS II Q4Polity

Discuss the nature of Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly after the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganization Act, 2019. Briefly describe the powers and functions of the Assembly of the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir.

10 marks150 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

  • Discuss Cover the main aspects, with arguments on more than one side.
  • Describe Give the main features in an orderly account.

For Polity: Quote Articles, landmark cases and committees by name; end with a balanced way forward.

For this question: Name section 32 and its two exclusions, public order and police; they define the Assembly's limits.

What the question asks

Describe what kind of legislature the Jammu and Kashmir Assembly is after the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019, and briefly set out its powers and functions as the Assembly of a Union Territory.

A strong opening

The Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019 split the State into two Union Territories from 31 October 2019: Jammu and Kashmir with a legislature, and Ladakh without one. The new Assembly rests on Article 239A, which lets Parliament create a legislature for certain Union Territories.

Points to cover

Nature of the Assembly

  • A Union Territory legislature created by an Act of Parliament, not a State legislature: Parliament can change its powers by ordinary law.
  • Composition: After the 2022 delimitation it has 90 elected seats; 24 seats for areas under Pakistan's occupation stay vacant, and the Lieutenant Governor may nominate members, including up to two Kashmiri migrants (one a woman) under the 2023 amendment.
  • The first election to the Union Territory Assembly was held in September and October 2024.

Legislative powers

  • Under section 32 it may make laws on any matter in the State List except 'Public Order' and 'Police', and on the Concurrent List as far as it applies to Union Territories.
  • Parliament keeps full power to legislate for the territory, and a Union law prevails over an Assembly law on the same matter.

Executive and financial role

  • The Council of Ministers, not more than ten per cent of the Assembly's total strength, is headed by a Chief Minister and aids and advises the Lieutenant Governor in matters within the Assembly's powers.
  • The Lieutenant Governor acts in his discretion in matters outside the Assembly's powers, including police and public order, and his recommendation is needed for financial Bills.
  • The Assembly passes the budget, questions ministers and holds the government to account.

Assessment

  • It is a representative body with real but limited powers; the restoration of statehood remains awaited.
A balanced conclusion

The Jammu and Kashmir Assembly is elected and accountable but works within the narrower frame of a Union Territory. Its powers will widen only when statehood returns.

Study the topic: Article 239A and Article 370: Union Territories of Puducherry, Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh

Sources: The Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019 (gazette text); Gazette of India: The Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation (Amendment) Act, 2023; Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly (Wikipedia); The Constitution of India (Legislative Department), Article 239A

GS II Q5Polity

"The Attorney General of India plays a crucial role in guiding the legal framework of the Union Government and ensuring sound governance through legal counsel." Discuss his responsibilities, rights and limitations in this regard.

10 marks150 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

  • Discuss Cover the main aspects, with arguments on more than one side.

For Polity: Quote Articles, landmark cases and committees by name; end with a balanced way forward.

For this question: Use three headings exactly as asked: Responsibilities, rights, limitations, each with its Article.

What the question asks

Discuss the Attorney General's role as the Union's chief legal adviser: Duties, rights, and the limitations on the office.

A strong opening

Article 76 creates the office of the Attorney General for India, the highest law officer. The President appoints a person qualified to be a Supreme Court judge, who holds office during the pleasure of the President.

Points to cover

Responsibilities

  • To give advice to the Government of India on legal matters referred by the President.
  • To perform other duties of a legal character assigned by the President, such as appearing for the Union in the Supreme Court and in Presidential references under Article 143.
  • To discharge functions conferred on him by the Constitution or any other law.

Rights

  • Right of audience in all courts in the territory of India (Article 76(3)).
  • Right to speak in, and take part in the proceedings of, either House of Parliament and its committees, without a vote (Article 88), with the privileges of a member of Parliament (Article 105(4)).

Limitations

  • Holds office at the pleasure of the President, with no fixed tenure or security of tenure.
  • Not a member of the Cabinet and has no vote in Parliament.
  • Must not advise or hold a brief against the Government of India, must not defend an accused person in a criminal case, and must not take a company directorship without the government's consent; he is not a government servant and is not barred from private practice.

Role in sound governance

  • Frank, independent legal advice keeps executive action within the Constitution; the convention of independence, not the law, protects the office.
A balanced conclusion

The Attorney General is both the government's lawyer and an officer of the Constitution. The office serves good governance best when its advice is independent, even when unwelcome.

Study the topic: Attorney General of India and Advocate General: Article 76, Article 165, Duties and Rights

Sources: The Constitution of India (Legislative Department), Articles 76 and 88; Attorney General for India (Wikipedia)

GS II Q6Social Justice

Women's social capital complements in advancing empowerment and gender equity. Explain.

10 marks150 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

  • Explain Say what it is and why or how it happens, step by step.

For Social Justice: Cite the Act, the scheme and one data point on the group affected.

For this question: Define social capital in one line, then show SHGs, SEWA and Kudumbashree doing what laws alone cannot.

What the question asks

Explain how women's social capital (their networks, trust and shared norms) supports their empowerment and gender equity, alongside economic and legal measures. Give Indian examples.

A strong opening

Social capital means the networks of relationships, shared norms, trust and reciprocity that help people act together. For women, who often lack assets and formal power, collective networks turn individual weakness into shared strength.

Points to cover

Economic empowerment through collectives

  • Self-help groups pool savings, give each other loans and stand as guarantors for bank credit; under DAY-NRLM, 10.05 crore rural households have been organised into about 90.90 lakh SHGs.
  • The Lakhpati Didi initiative aims for SHG women to earn at least one lakh rupees a year on a sustainable basis.
  • SEWA, founded in 1972 by Ela Bhatt, organised informal women workers into a union and cooperatives.

Voice and social change

  • Kerala's Kudumbashree, inaugurated on 17 May 1998, links women's neighbourhood groups to local government planning.
  • Women's groups have campaigned on liquor, dowry and domestic violence and used networks to report problems in schemes.

Political participation

  • Collective experience in SHGs prepares women to contest and work in panchayats, where not less than one-third of seats are reserved for women under Article 243D.

How it complements other measures

  • Laws, reservations and schemes give rights and resources; social capital gives women the confidence, information and support to use them.
  • Limits: Groups can reproduce caste and class divides, and some become credit channels only; capacity building and links to markets keep them effective.
A balanced conclusion

Women's social capital turns rights on paper into choices in practice. Strengthening collectives is therefore a direct route to gender equity, not a side benefit.

Sources: Social capital (Wikipedia); PIB: Lakhpati Didi Scheme (22 July 2025); Self Employed Women's Association (Wikipedia); Kudumbashree (Wikipedia); The Constitution of India (Legislative Department), Article 243D

GS II Q7Governance

e-governance projects have a built-in bias towards technology and back-end integration than user-centric designs. Examine.

10 marks150 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

  • Examine Probe the issue in depth: Causes, evidence and consequences.

For Governance: Name the law, scheme or commission, add one example of good practice, and close with reforms.

For this question: Give one example of each bias (exclusion, app-only access) and one of good design (CSCs, UMANG).

What the question asks

Examine the claim that Indian e-governance projects focus on technology and back-end integration more than on the citizen's experience. Give examples on both sides and suggest what user-centred design needs.

A strong opening

E-governance uses digital tools to deliver services and run government. Digital India, launched on 1 July 2015, built large platforms, but a service is judged by how easily a citizen can use it.

Points to cover

Where the bias to technology shows

  • Projects are measured by integration, digitisation and transactions rather than by whether people actually receive the service.
  • Mandatory online authentication has excluded some beneficiaries when fingerprints fail or networks drop; exclusion from welfare benefits was among the grounds argued before the Supreme Court in the Aadhaar case.
  • Interfaces often assume literacy, English, smartphones and good connectivity; departments build separate apps and portals.

Where user focus has improved

  • Common Service Centres give assisted, in-person access to digital services in villages.
  • UMANG, launched in November 2017, brings many services into one app; DigiLocker and UPI were designed for ease of use and spread fast.

What user-centred design needs

  • Design with users: Research, testing in local languages and with persons with disabilities.
  • Offline and assisted fallbacks, and grievance redress built into each service.
  • Measure outcomes (service received, time and cost to the citizen), not only back-end integration.
A balanced conclusion

India's digital backbone is strong, but its value lies in the citizen's front end. Putting the user first, especially the poor and the less literate, is what makes e-governance good governance.

Sources: Digital India (Wikipedia); Aadhaar (Wikipedia); Common Service Centres (Wikipedia); UMANG (Wikipedia)

GS II Q8Governance

Civil Society Organizations are often perceived as being anti-State actors than non-State actors. Do you agree? Justify.

10 marks150 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

  • Justify Give reasons and evidence that support the position asked for.

For Governance: Name the law, scheme or commission, add one example of good practice, and close with reforms.

For this question: Distinguish "anti-State" from "non-State" at the start; the whole answer turns on it.

What the question asks

Say whether you agree that civil society organisations (CSOs) are seen as working against the State rather than simply outside it, and justify your answer with Indian examples on both sides.

A strong opening

Civil society organisations are voluntary groups outside the State and the market: NGOs, community groups, trade unions and movements. Being non-State means independent of government; being anti-State would mean opposed to it.

Points to cover

Why they are sometimes seen as anti-State

  • Many CSOs criticise policy, file public interest litigation or lead protests against projects, as the Narmada Bachao Andolan did over displacement.
  • Foreign funding is regulated under the Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act, 2010, amended in 2020; the licences of some NGOs have been cancelled, and critics allege that dissent is treated as hostility.

Why they are better described as non-State partners

  • The Right to Information Act, 2005 grew out of a campaign led by the Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan; it strengthened, not weakened, the State.
  • CSOs run schools, health camps and disaster relief, help deliver government schemes, and carry out social audits.
  • Women's groups such as SEWA and SHG networks work with government programmes.

Answer

  • Disagreement with a government is not opposition to the State: Criticism, accountability and service delivery are all part of democracy; foreign-funding rules should target misuse, not dissent.
A balanced conclusion

Most CSOs are non-State actors that both partner and question the government. A confident democracy treats their criticism as a check that improves the State.

Study the topic: FCRA Amendment Bill 2026: Foreign Contribution, the Designated Authority and the JPC

Sources: Foreign Contribution (Regulation) legislation in India (Wikipedia); Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (Wikipedia); Right to Information Act, 2005 (Wikipedia); Sardar Sarovar Dam (Wikipedia)

GS II Q9International Relations

India-Africa digital partnership is achieving mutual respect, co-development and long-term institutional partnerships. Elaborate.

10 marks150 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

For International Relations: A small map helps; state India's interest plainly and name agreements and groupings.

For this question: Pair each value (respect, co-development, institutions) with one programme or country.

What the question asks

Elaborate how India-Africa digital cooperation reflects mutual respect, co-development and lasting institutional ties. Use named programmes and country examples.

A strong opening

India's digital cooperation with Africa grew from a tele-education and tele-medicine network into the sharing of digital public infrastructure such as payments and identity systems. It is built on partnership and capacity rather than aid alone.

Points to cover

Mutual respect: Demand-driven, no conditions

  • Programmes are taken up on African countries' requests, through MoUs with each government, and leave ownership with the partner.

Co-development: Tele-education, tele-medicine and payments

  • The Pan-African e-Network was succeeded by e-VidyaBharti and e-ArogyaBharti (e-VBAB), under which countries such as Ghana signed MoUs with TCIL for online courses and medical training.
  • NPCI International and the Bank of Namibia signed an agreement on 2 May 2024 to build a UPI-like instant payment system for Namibia; UPI also works for payments in Mauritius.
  • Modular open-source platforms let partners own and adapt the systems instead of buying closed products.

Long-term institutional partnership

  • Training under ITEC and scholarships build skills that stay in Africa, and centres of excellence in IT are set up with African institutions.

Challenges

  • Uneven internet access, data protection rules and competition from China's larger financing call for steady funding and local partnerships.
A balanced conclusion

India's digital ties with Africa offer shared, adaptable public infrastructure and skills. Their strength is that partners own what is built, which makes the partnership durable.

Sources: Ministry of External Affairs: India-Ghana Bilateral Relations (2025); Unified Payments Interface (Wikipedia)

GS II Q10International Relations

"With the waning of globalization, post-Cold War world is becoming a site of sovereign nationalism." Elucidate.

10 marks150 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

  • Elucidate Explain clearly with examples, so the point becomes plain.

For International Relations: A small map helps; state India's interest plainly and name agreements and groupings.

For this question: Four dated examples (Brexit 2016, the WTO Appellate Body 2019, Ukraine 2022, tariffs 2025) make the trend concrete.

What the question asks

Elucidate the claim that, as globalisation weakens, the post-Cold War world is turning towards sovereign nationalism. Explain the trend, give examples, and note its limits and India's position.

A strong opening

After 1991 the world moved towards open trade, global institutions and interdependence. In the 2010s that trend slowed (deglobalisation), and states increasingly put national control over borders, trade and technology first.

Points to cover

Signs of sovereign nationalism

  • Brexit (2016): The United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union, rejecting deeper economic integration.
  • Trade: The US-China trade war from 2018 and, on 2 April 2025, the US 'Liberation Day' tariffs on goods from nearly all countries.
  • Institutions: The WTO's Appellate Body lost its ability to rule in December 2019 because members were not appointed.
  • Security: Russia's invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022 and sanctions in reply split the world into blocs.

Drivers

  • Job losses blamed on trade, inequality, migration fears, the COVID-19 supply shocks and rivalry over technology.

Limits of the trend

  • Trade, finance and digital flows remain deep; climate change, pandemics and terrorism still require cooperation; regional and plurilateral deals continue.

India's approach

  • Strategic autonomy and self-reliance (Atmanirbhar Bharat) combined with trade agreements and membership of many groupings: Engagement without dependence.
A balanced conclusion

Globalisation is being reshaped rather than reversed, with states asserting control over what they see as strategic. Sovereign nationalism is now a strong force, but interdependence still sets its limits.

Sources: Deglobalization (Wikipedia); Tariffs in the second Trump administration (Wikipedia); Appellate Body (Wikipedia); Russo-Ukrainian war (2022 to present) (Wikipedia)

GS II Q11Polity

"Constitutional morality is the fulcrum which acts as an essential check upon the high functionaries and citizens alike...." In view of the above observation of the Supreme Court, explain the concept of constitutional morality and its application to ensure balance between judicial independence and judicial accountability in India.

15 marks250 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

  • Explain Say what it is and why or how it happens, step by step.

For Polity: Quote Articles, landmark cases and committees by name; end with a balanced way forward.

For this question: Open with the 2018 "fulcrum" line, then give independence and accountability a block each.

What the question asks

Explain the idea of constitutional morality, using the Supreme Court's 'fulcrum' observation, and show how it helps balance judicial independence with judicial accountability in India.

A strong opening

In Government of NCT of Delhi v. Union of India (4 July 2018) the Supreme Court said that constitutional morality is the fulcrum which acts as an essential check upon high functionaries and citizens alike, because unbridled power without checks and balances turns despotic. The Court drew on B. R. Ambedkar's warning that constitutional morality is not a natural sentiment and has to be cultivated.

Points to cover

What constitutional morality means

  • Loyalty to the Constitution's values and spirit, not only its text: Liberty, equality, dignity, the rule of law and restraint in the use of power.
  • Every functionary, including judges, must exercise power for the purposes the Constitution intends and accept checks on it.

Judicial independence

  • Security of tenure: A Supreme Court judge can be removed only by an order of the President after an address by each House of Parliament, on the ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity (Article 124(4)), under the procedure of the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968.
  • Appointments: The collegium system, from the Three Judges Cases (1981, 1993 and 1998), keeps the judiciary's voice in appointments; on 16 October 2015 the Court struck down the National Judicial Appointments Commission to protect independence.

Judicial accountability

  • Impeachment is rare and slow; the in-house procedure for complaints against judges lacks transparency; delays and the collegium's opacity are frequent criticisms.
  • Constitutional morality asks judges to be transparent about appointments and assets, to give reasons, and to avoid conflicts of interest, without making them answerable to the executive.

How constitutional morality strikes the balance

  • It protects independence as a means to impartial justice, not a privilege, and it demands accountability that comes from within: Transparency, a code of conduct and peer scrutiny.
A balanced conclusion

Constitutional morality binds judges as it binds every other authority. An independent judiciary keeps its legitimacy only by being open and accountable in how it uses its power.

Study the topic: Supreme Court of India: Collegium System, Appointment, Tenure and Removal of Judges

Sources: Supreme Court of India: Government of NCT of Delhi v. Union of India, 4 July 2018; The Constitution of India (Legislative Department), Article 124(4); Collegium system (Wikipedia); National Judicial Appointments Commission (Wikipedia)

GS II Q12Polity

Indian Constitution has conferred the amending power on the ordinary legislative institutions with a few procedural hurdles. In view of this statement, examine the procedural and substantive limitations on the amending power of the Parliament to change the Constitution.

15 marks250 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

  • Examine Probe the issue in depth: Causes, evidence and consequences.

For Polity: Quote Articles, landmark cases and committees by name; end with a balanced way forward.

For this question: List the procedural hurdles of Article 368, then the basic structure cases in order of date.

What the question asks

Examine the statement that the Constitution gives the power to amend to ordinary legislative bodies with only a few procedural hurdles; set out the procedural and the substantive limits on Parliament's amending power.

A strong opening

Article 368 gives Parliament the power to amend the Constitution by addition, variation or repeal. Unlike the United States, India uses its regular legislature for amendments, which is why the procedural safeguards are few and the judiciary has added substantive ones.

Points to cover

Procedural limits

  • A Bill can be introduced only in Parliament, not in a State Legislature.
  • It must pass each House by a majority of the total membership and not less than two-thirds of members present and voting; there is no joint sitting for amendment Bills.
  • Amendments touching federal provisions (such as the election of the President, the Union and State executive powers, the judiciary, the Seventh Schedule and representation in Parliament) must also be ratified by the Legislatures of not less than one-half of the States.
  • The President must give assent to a duly passed amendment Bill.

Substantive limits: The basic structure

  • Golaknath (1967) held that Parliament could not amend Fundamental Rights; Parliament replied with the 24th Amendment.
  • Kesavananda Bharati (24 April 1973), by a 7:6 majority, held that Parliament can amend any part of the Constitution but not destroy its basic structure.
  • Minerva Mills (1980) held that Parliament has only a limited amending power and cannot turn it into an absolute power; clauses (4) and (5) of Article 368 added by the 42nd Amendment were struck down.
  • Elements of the basic structure include the supremacy of the Constitution, judicial review, federalism, secularism, free and fair elections and the balance between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles.

Assessment

  • Flexible procedure lets the Constitution adapt, while the basic structure doctrine ensures that its identity cannot be changed by a temporary majority.
A balanced conclusion

Easy procedure is balanced by a firm substantive limit. Parliament may amend the Constitution widely, but not rewrite its basic structure.

Study the topic: Salient Features of the Indian Constitution: Sources, Amendment and Basic Structure

Sources: The Constitution of India (Legislative Department), Article 368; Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (Wikipedia); Minerva Mills v. Union of India (Wikipedia); Golaknath v. State of Punjab (Wikipedia)

GS II Q13Polity

Discuss the evolution of collegium system in India. Critically examine the advantages and disadvantages of the system of appointment of the Judges of the Supreme Court of India and that of the USA.

15 marks250 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

  • Discuss Cover the main aspects, with arguments on more than one side.
  • Critically examine Look at both sides with evidence, then give a reasoned judgement.

For Polity: Quote Articles, landmark cases and committees by name; end with a balanced way forward.

For this question: Trace the three Judges Cases and the NJAC, then compare India and the USA in a table.

What the question asks

Discuss how the collegium system evolved, then critically compare the advantages and disadvantages of appointing Supreme Court judges in India and in the USA.

A strong opening

Article 124 says the President appoints Supreme Court judges after consultation with the Chief Justice and other judges. How much weight that consultation carries was settled by the courts, not by the text.

Points to cover

Evolution of the collegium

  • First Judges Case (1981): 'Consultation' did not mean concurrence; the executive had primacy.
  • Second Judges Case (1993): The Chief Justice's opinion, formed with senior judges, has primacy; the collegium was born.
  • Third Judges Case (1998): The collegium became the Chief Justice and the four senior-most judges.
  • The 99th Amendment and the NJAC Act (in force from 13 April 2015) set up a National Judicial Appointments Commission, but the Court struck both down on 16 October 2015 by a 4:1 majority and restored the collegium.

India: Advantages and disadvantages

  • Advantages: Insulates appointments from political pressure, keeps judges' expert judgement of merit.
  • Disadvantages: Opaque, no written criteria or public reasons, charges of nepotism, and delays in finalising the Memorandum of Procedure with the government.

USA: Advantages and disadvantages

  • The President nominates and the Senate gives advice and consent after public hearings; judges serve for life.
  • Advantages: Transparent, democratic and accountable, with public scrutiny of nominees.
  • Disadvantages: Highly political confirmations along party lines and a court seen as divided by ideology.

Way forward for India

  • Written criteria, published reasons, a secretariat for the collegium and a time-bound Memorandum of Procedure would add transparency without political control.
A balanced conclusion

India chose judicial primacy to protect independence; the US chose political accountability. A reformed, transparent collegium would combine the strengths of both.

Study the topic: Supreme Court of India: Collegium System, Appointment, Tenure and Removal of Judges

Sources: Collegium system (Wikipedia); National Judicial Appointments Commission (Wikipedia); Nomination and confirmation to the Supreme Court of the United States (Wikipedia)

GS II Q14Polity

Examine the evolving pattern of Centre-State financial relations in the context of planned development in India. How far have the recent reforms impacted the fiscal federalism in India?

15 marks250 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

  • Examine Probe the issue in depth: Causes, evidence and consequences.
  • How far Answer with a measured extent: To a large extent, partly, or little, with reasons.

For Polity: Quote Articles, landmark cases and committees by name; end with a balanced way forward.

For this question: Contrast the planning era with today: Plan grants then, NITI Aayog, GST and the 41 per cent share now.

What the question asks

Examine how financial relations between the Centre and the States changed during planned development and after the end of planning, and judge how far recent reforms (NITI Aayog, GST, Finance Commission awards) have affected fiscal federalism.

A strong opening

The Constitution gives the Union the more elastic taxes and the States heavier spending duties, so transfers are central to Indian federalism. Under the Constitution these flow mainly through the Finance Commission set up every five years under Article 280.

Points to cover

The planning era

  • Besides Finance Commission devolution, the Planning Commission gave plan grants to States, and Centrally Sponsored Schemes with conditions grew, which gave the Centre a large say in State spending.

Recent reforms

  • NITI Aayog replaced the Planning Commission in 2015, ending plan grants; its council includes all Chief Ministers.
  • The Fourteenth Finance Commission raised the States' share of central taxes to 42 per cent, the largest increase ever recommended; the Sixteenth retained 41 per cent for 2026-31, which the Union accepted.
  • GST (2017) pooled indirect taxes; the GST Council under Article 279A takes decisions with weighted voting of Centre and States.

Impact on fiscal federalism

  • Gains: More untied funds, cooperative decision-making in the GST Council and a single national market.
  • Concerns: States gave up independent taxing power under GST; cesses and surcharges outside the divisible pool reduce what is shared; borrowing limits and conditional schemes still constrain States.
A balanced conclusion

Fiscal federalism has moved from plan-based control towards rule-based sharing and joint decisions. Keeping the divisible pool large and the GST Council genuinely cooperative will decide whether States gain real autonomy.

Study the topic: GST Council Under Article 279A: Members, Weighted Voting, Functions and the 101st Amendment

Sources: The Constitution of India (Legislative Department), Articles 279A and 280; PIB: Government accepts 16th Finance Commission's recommendation to retain vertical share of devolution at 41 percent; Fourteenth Finance Commission (Wikipedia); NITI Aayog (Wikipedia)

GS II Q15Governance

What are environmental pressure groups? Discuss their role in raising awareness, influencing policies and advocating for environmental protection in India.

15 marks250 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

  • Discuss Cover the main aspects, with arguments on more than one side.

For Governance: Name the law, scheme or commission, add one example of good practice, and close with reforms.

For this question: Define pressure groups, then take awareness, policy and advocacy in turn with one example each.

What the question asks

Define environmental pressure groups and discuss their role in India in spreading awareness, shaping policy and advocating protection, with examples of each.

A strong opening

Environmental pressure groups are organised groups that try to influence public opinion and government policy on the environment without seeking political power themselves. They range from local movements to research and advocacy bodies.

Points to cover

Raising awareness

  • The Chipko movement, which began in 1973 in the Himalayan forests of Uttarakhand, drew national attention to commercial logging and local livelihoods.
  • The Centre for Science and Environment (established 1980) publishes research and reports that inform the public and the media.

Influencing policy

  • Research and lobbying have shaped rules on vehicle emissions, pesticides and air quality, and inputs to laws such as the Forest Rights Act, 2006.
  • The Bombay Natural History Society (founded 15 September 1883) supplies the science behind wildlife and bird conservation.

Advocacy and litigation

  • Public interest litigation has driven major environmental judgments on industrial pollution and the protection of forests and rivers.
  • Movements such as the Narmada Bachao Andolan pressed for rehabilitation and environmental safeguards in big projects.

Limits

  • Charges of blocking development, dependence on funding and, at times, restrictions on foreign contributions.
A balanced conclusion

Environmental pressure groups give a voice to nature and to the communities that depend on it. Their research, mobilisation and litigation have made environmental protection part of mainstream policy in India.

Sources: Chipko movement (Wikipedia); Centre for Science and Environment (Wikipedia); Bombay Natural History Society (Wikipedia); Sardar Sarovar Dam (Wikipedia)

GS II Q16Social Justice

Inequality in the ownership pattern of resources is one of the major causes of poverty. Discuss in the context of 'paradox of poverty'.

15 marks250 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

  • Discuss Cover the main aspects, with arguments on more than one side.

For Social Justice: Cite the Act, the scheme and one data point on the group affected.

For this question: Explain "paradox of poverty" as poverty amid plenty, and back it with the 86 per cent smallholder figure.

What the question asks

Discuss how unequal ownership of resources (land, capital, education and natural wealth) causes poverty, and relate it to the 'paradox of poverty': Poverty that persists amid resources and growth.

A strong opening

The paradox of poverty is the persistence of poverty where resources or growth are plentiful. In development writing the same idea appears as the resource curse, also called the paradox of plenty, where regions rich in natural resources stay poor.

Points to cover

Unequal ownership as a cause of poverty

  • Land: According to the Agriculture Census 2015-16, small and marginal operational holders make up about 86 per cent of all holders, and many rural households own little or no land.
  • Capital and credit: Those without assets cannot offer collateral, so they borrow at high cost or not at all.
  • Human capital: Unequal access to good schooling and health keeps the poor in low-paid work across generations.

The paradox in India

  • Mineral-rich States such as Jharkhand, Odisha and Chhattisgarh have high poverty: Mining income goes to firms and the State, while local and tribal communities lose land and forests.
  • Fast growth with weak redistribution concentrates gains among those who already own capital and skills.

Breaking the link

  • Land reforms, secure tenancy and forest rights; shares of mining income for affected people through District Mineral Foundations; universal education and health; credit through self-help groups and the Jan Dhan accounts.
A balanced conclusion

Poverty amid plenty is mostly a problem of who owns and controls resources. Wider ownership and fair sharing of resource income are the way to resolve the paradox.

Sources: Resource curse (Wikipedia); PIB: Agriculture Census 2015-16 (Lok Sabha reply)

GS II Q17Governance

"In contemporary development models, decision-making and problem-solving responsibilities are not located close to the source of information and execution defeating the objectives of development." Critically evaluate.

15 marks250 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

  • Critically evaluate Weigh merits and demerits, then state your verdict and why.

For Governance: Name the law, scheme or commission, add one example of good practice, and close with reforms.

For this question: Name the principle (subsidiarity) and give evidence on both sides before the way forward.

What the question asks

Critically evaluate the claim that today's development models place decisions far from where information lies and work is done, defeating development goals. Give evidence for and against, and the way forward.

A strong opening

Good development needs decisions to be taken close to the people who hold local knowledge and carry out the work, an idea known as subsidiarity. India's planning was long centralised, and the question is how far it still is.

Points to cover

Evidence for the claim

  • Centrally Sponsored Schemes are designed in New Delhi with uniform norms that do not fit every district.
  • Panchayats and municipalities have the constitutional role but often lack the funds, functions and functionaries (the 3Fs) to plan for themselves.
  • Technology platforms collect data centrally while the local official who implements the scheme has little discretion.

Evidence against

  • The 73rd and 74th Amendments gave panchayats and municipalities constitutional status, with the Eleventh and Twelfth Schedules listing matters they may plan for.
  • The Aspirational Districts Programme, launched in January 2018 for 112 districts and anchored by NITI Aayog, uses local data and district-level decisions.
  • Kerala's People's Plan Campaign and Gram Panchayat Development Plans show that local planning works when funds follow.

Way forward

  • Devolve funds, functions and functionaries to local bodies; give flexible funds within schemes; build local capacity and data; involve citizens through gram sabhas and ward committees.
A balanced conclusion

The claim is largely true, though recent reforms point the other way. Development succeeds when those who know the problem have the authority and the money to solve it.

Sources: The Constitution of India (Legislative Department), Article 243G and the Eleventh Schedule; Aspirational Districts Programme (Wikipedia)

GS II Q18Social Justice

The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights has to address the challenges faced by children in the digital era. Examine the existing policies and suggest measures the Commission can initiate to tackle the issue.

15 marks250 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

  • Examine Probe the issue in depth: Causes, evidence and consequences.
  • Suggest End with practical, specific measures, not general wishes.

For Social Justice: Cite the Act, the scheme and one data point on the group affected.

For this question: Group the challenges, list the laws, then give NCPCR-specific measures, not general ones.

What the question asks

Examine the challenges children face in the digital era and the policies that exist, then suggest steps the National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) can take.

A strong opening

The NCPCR is a statutory body set up under section 3 of the Commissions for Protection of Child Rights Act, 2005 to protect, promote and defend child rights and to monitor laws for children. Children now spend much of their lives online, which brings new risks.

Points to cover

Challenges in the digital era

  • Online sexual abuse and child sexual abuse material, grooming and sextortion.
  • Cyberbullying, harmful content, gaming addiction and effects on mental health and sleep.
  • Collection of children's personal data and targeted advertising; misinformation.
  • The digital divide: Many children lack devices or connectivity for learning.

Existing policies

  • The POCSO Act, 2012 covers sexual offences against children, including the use of children in pornographic material; the IT Act and IT Rules require platforms to remove such content.
  • The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 has special provisions for the personal data of children under 18.
  • The NCPCR monitors implementation of these laws and can inquire into violations.

Measures the NCPCR can initiate

  • Guidelines for platforms on age-appropriate design, default privacy settings and quick takedown; regular audits of compliance.
  • Easy online complaint channels for children and parents, and coordination with the police cyber cells.
  • Digital literacy and online safety training in schools with State commissions and education departments.
  • Research and data on children's online harms to inform policy.
A balanced conclusion

The digital world is now part of childhood. The NCPCR can protect children best by pressing platforms for safe design while helping children and parents use technology wisely.

Sources: National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (Wikipedia); Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012 (Wikipedia); Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 (Wikipedia)

GS II Q19International Relations

"Energy security constitutes the dominant kingpin of India's foreign policy, and is linked with India's overarching influence in Middle Eastern countries." How would you integrate energy security with India's foreign policy trajectories in the coming years?

15 marks250 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

For International Relations: A small map helps; state India's interest plainly and name agreements and groupings.

For this question: Link energy security to the Gulf, then give four forward-looking strands for policy.

What the question asks

Discuss how energy security shapes India's foreign policy, especially in the Middle East, and set out how India should build energy security into its foreign policy in the coming years.

A strong opening

India depends on imports for most of the crude oil and much of the gas it uses, and a large share comes from the Gulf. Energy security, meaning affordable and reliable supplies, is therefore a constant concern of Indian diplomacy.

Points to cover

Why the Middle East matters

  • Saudi Arabia, Iraq and the UAE are major suppliers of crude oil, and Qatar of LNG; millions of Indians work in the Gulf and send remittances home.
  • Chokepoints such as the Strait of Hormuz make supplies vulnerable to conflict.

Tools already in use

  • Strategic petroleum reserves at Visakhapatnam, Mangaluru and Padur hold 5.33 million tonnes of crude.
  • Diversifying suppliers, including larger purchases from Russia after 2022 and from the Americas and Africa.
  • Connectivity: The India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor, announced at the G20 Summit in New Delhi in 2023; the Chabahar port in Iran.
  • Clean energy diplomacy: The International Solar Alliance, proposed by India in 2015, and green hydrogen partnerships.

Integrating energy security into future foreign policy

  • Balanced ties with rival Gulf powers and with Iran, Israel and the US, so that supplies survive regional conflict.
  • Long-term contracts and Indian equity stakes in oil and gas fields abroad.
  • Energy transition partnerships for critical minerals, solar manufacturing, nuclear fuel and storage, which reduce dependence over time.
  • Naval presence and cooperation to keep sea lanes open.
A balanced conclusion

Energy security will stay central to India's foreign policy until the energy transition matures. A diversified, balanced and increasingly green energy diplomacy serves both security and influence.

Study the topic: Iran Closes the Strait of Hormuz: India's Energy-Security Test (April 2026)

Sources: Strategic Petroleum Reserve (India) (Wikipedia); India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (Wikipedia); International Solar Alliance (Wikipedia)

GS II Q20International Relations

"The reform process in the United Nations remains unresolved, because of the delicate imbalance of East and West and entanglement of the USA vs. Russo-Chinese alliance." Examine and critically evaluate the East-West policy confrontations in this regard.

15 marks250 words8 min 45 s

See the answer frameworkWhat to write, point by point

How to write this answer

  • Examine Probe the issue in depth: Causes, evidence and consequences.
  • Critically evaluate Weigh merits and demerits, then state your verdict and why.

For International Relations: A small map helps; state India's interest plainly and name agreements and groupings.

For this question: Agree in part: Show East-West vetoes, then the regional rivalries (G4 against Uniting for Consensus).

What the question asks

Examine why reform of the United Nations, especially the Security Council, remains stuck, and critically evaluate the claim that East-West confrontation between the US and a Russia-China alignment is the main reason.

A strong opening

The UN Security Council still reflects the world of 1945: Five permanent members with a veto. Reform talks on its size, membership and the veto have continued in the General Assembly for decades without agreement.

Points to cover

How East-West rivalry blocks reform

  • The Council itself is paralysed on major crises: A draft resolution deploring Russia's invasion of Ukraine was vetoed in February 2022, and the United States vetoed several draft resolutions on the Gaza war in 2023 and 2024.
  • Each side resists any change that might dilute its veto or add members it sees as aligned with rivals.

Divisions that are not East-West

  • The G4 (Brazil, Germany, India and Japan) seek permanent seats, but their regional rivals in the Uniting for Consensus group (including Italy, Pakistan, Mexico and Egypt) oppose new permanent members.
  • The African Group demands two permanent seats with veto power, citing historical injustice.
  • The P5 are themselves divided: China opposes Japan and is cool towards India, while the US is wary of a larger Council.

Evaluation

  • The East-West clash explains the Council's paralysis but not fully the deadlock on reform, which is also a contest among regions and middle powers.

India's approach

  • Pressing for text-based negotiations, a permanent seat with the G4 and fairer representation of Africa and the Global South.
A balanced conclusion

UN reform is blocked by rivalry among the great powers and among aspiring members alike. Without it, the Council's authority will keep shrinking as crises are handled elsewhere.

Sources: United Nations General Assembly Resolution ES-11/1 (Wikipedia); United Nations Security Council veto power (Wikipedia); Reform of the United Nations Security Council (Wikipedia); G4 nations (Wikipedia)

Questions students ask

UPSC Mains 2025 GS Paper 2: Common Questions

How many questions were asked in UPSC Mains 2025 GS Paper 2?

GS Paper 2 of UPSC Mains 2025, held on 23 August 2025, had 20 questions on polity, governance, social justice, international relations. The paper carried 250 marks and three hours.

Which topics did UPSC Mains 2025 GS Paper 2 cover?

By topic, the questions were: Polity (9), Governance (4), International Relations (4), Social Justice (3).

Does UPSC publish answers for Mains 2025 GS Paper 2?

No. UPSC publishes the question paper but not model answers. The answer frameworks on this page are written by Digitally Learn to show what each question asks and the points a good answer covers.

Questions are reproduced from the official question papers published by the Union Public Service Commission. UPSC does not publish model answers for the Main examination; the answer frameworks are written by Digitally Learn and are its copyright. upsc.gov.in