Tribal and Peasant Uprisings against Colonial Rule before 1885
Tribal and Peasant Uprisings against Colonial Rule before 1885

Overview

Previous Year UPSC-CSE Questions By the end you will be able to draft model answers for the following UPSC questions. Each question carries a collapsible framework showing how to approach it in the exam.

  1. UPSC Mains 2023 GS-IHow did colonial rule affect the tribals in India and what was the tribal response to the colonial oppression?
    How to structure the answer in the exam

    Directive verb: Discuss · Approach: Set out the colonial impact on the tribals, then their response in the major revolts.

    Introduction: Open with the tribal people as among the first and hardest hit by colonial rule.

    Body (sub-themes to develop):

    • The impact: land alienation to outsiders (dikus), forest laws, the moneylender, the missionary.
    • The response: the Kol (1831), the Santhal Hul (1855), the Khasi and the Bhil and Khond risings.
    • The climax: the Munda Ulgulan of Birsa Munda.
    • The character: local, traditional, crushed, but a deep base of resistance.

    Conclusion: Conclude that the tribal revolts were the first and fiercest resistance to colonial rule.

  2. UPSC Prelims 2018 GS Paper IAfter the Santhal Uprising subsided, what was/were the measure/measures taken by the colonial government?
    1. The territories called ‘Santhal Parganas’ were created.
    2. It became illegal for a Santhal to transfer land to a non-Santhal.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    1. a 1 only
    2. b 2 only
    3. c Both 1 and 2
    4. d Neither 1 nor 2
    How to approach this Prelims question

    Question type: Multi-statement (correctness)

    Approach: Recall the colonial measures that followed the Santhal Hul.

    Trap to watch: Both measures were taken: the Santhal Parganas were created AND the transfer of Santhal land to non-Santhals was banned. So Both 1 and 2.

    Key facts to recall:

    • Santhal Hul 1855 (Sidhu and Kanhu)
    • Santhal Parganas created after it
    • Ban on transfer of Santhal land to outsiders

    Answer signal: Both statements correct, so option (c).

  3. UPSC Prelims 2020 GS Paper IWith reference to the history of India, "Ulgulan" or the Great Tumult is the description of which of the following events?
    1. a The Revolt of 1857
    2. b The Mappila Rebellion of 1921
    3. c The Indigo Revolt of 1859-60
    4. d Birsa Munda's Revolt of 1899-1900
    How to approach this Prelims question

    Question type: Single correct

    Approach: Recall which rising is called the Ulgulan or the Great Tumult.

    Trap to watch: The Ulgulan is the Munda rising of Birsa Munda (1899-1900), NOT the Indigo Revolt or the Mappila Rebellion.

    Key facts to recall:

    • Ulgulan = the Great Tumult
    • Birsa Munda's Munda rising, 1899-1900
    • Chotanagpur, against land alienation

    Answer signal: Birsa Munda's Revolt, so option (d).

Long before the educated class turned to politics, the first and most numerous resistance to colonial rule came from below, from the tribal people of the forests and hills and the peasants of the plains. Driven by the heavy land revenue, the rise of the moneylender and the loss of the forest, they rose again and again: the Kol and the Santhal Hul, the Munda Ulgulan, the rising of Titu Mir, the Indigo Revolt, the Pabna agrarian league and the Deccan Riots. These uprisings were crushed, but they were the popular base on which the national movement would later build.

Introduction: The Popular Resistance to Colonial Rule

The First Resistance Came from Below

Why this matters: the earliest and most widespread resistance to colonial rule was not that of the educated class but of the tribal people and the peasants. From the forests of Chotanagpur to the indigo fields of Bengal, they rose against a new order that took their land and their freedom.

What is the significance of this theme: though every rising was crushed, together they formed the popular base of anti-colonial resistance and a living memory of revolt. The map below shows the chief tribal and peasant uprisings before 1885.

Tribal and Peasant Uprisings before 1885The popular resistance to colonial land revenue, the moneylender and forest lawsBAY OF BENGALARABIAN SEASanthal Hul 1855Kol 1831Munda UlgulanKhasi 1830sBhilKhond 1840sKoyaIndigo RevoltTitu MirDeccan Riots 1875Pabna 1873The risings by typeTribal revoltsThe Santhal Hul (1855), the Kol (1831), the Munda Ulgulan, and theKhasi, Bhil, Khond and Koya risings.Peasant and agrarian movementsThe Indigo Revolt (1859), Titu Mir, the Deccan Riots (1875) and thePabna agrarian league (1873).A square marks Pabna, which lay in East Bengal, now Bangladesh, beyond the modern outline.From the hills to the indigo fields, the colonial order met resistance from below.Copyright (c) 2026 Digitally Learn. All Rights Reserved.
Figure 1. Tribal and peasant uprisings before 1885.

The Earliest Resistance: The Sanyasi and Fakir Rebellion

Revolt in the Wake of the Great Famine

What is the significance of the Sanyasi and Fakir Rebellion: it was among the earliest revolts against Company rule. In the years after the terrible Bengal famine of 1770, bands of wandering ascetics, the sanyasis and fakirs, joined by dispossessed peasants and disbanded soldiers, defied the Company across Bengal and Bihar.

Distinguishing the common causes: behind this and every later rising lay the same forces, the heavy land revenue, the grip of the moneylender, and the loss of access to the forest. The roots of revolt are set out below.

Why They RoseThe common roots of tribal and peasant revoltLand revenueThe heavy cash demandand the loss of landto outsidersThe moneylenderDebt, mortgage andthe rise of the baniaand the sahukarForest and forest lawsLoss of access to theforest and to shiftingcultivationOutsiders and missionsThe diku outsider, theofficial and themissionary in tribal landsColonial land revenue, the moneylender and forest laws drove the people of the soil to revolt.
Figure 2. Why they rose.

The Tribal Revolts against Colonial Rule

The Santhal Hul and the Kol, Khasi and Bhil Risings

What is the significance of the tribal revolts: colonial rule struck hardest at the tribal people, whose land passed to outsiders, the dikus, and whose forests were closed by new laws. The Kol of Chotanagpur rose in 1831 against the loss of their land, and the Khasi under Tirot Singh resisted British roads and rule.

Distinguishing the Santhal Hul: the greatest of these was the Santhal Hul of 1855, led by the brothers Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu, against the zamindars, the moneylenders and the Company in the Rajmahal hills. It was crushed, but it forced the creation of the Santhal Parganas and a ban on the transfer of Santhal land to outsiders. The risings are set out below.

The Tribal Revolts against Colonial RuleThe risings of the forest and the hillsKol, 1831Chotanagpur; againstthe transfer of triballand to outsidersSanthal Hul, 1855Sidhu and Kanhu; theRajmahal hills againstzamindars and the baniaKhasi, 1830sTirot Singh; the Khasihills against Britishroads and ruleBhil and KhondWestern India and theOdisha hills; against newtaxes and interferenceKoyaThe hills of theeast coast; against theloss of forest rightsMunda UlgulanBirsa Munda, the greattumult of 1899-1900;against land alienationFrom the Kol to the Munda, the tribal people rose again and again against the colonial order.
Figure 3. The tribal revolts against colonial rule.

The Munda Ulgulan and the Other Tribal Movements

What is the significance of the Munda Ulgulan: in Chotanagpur the Munda rose under Birsa Munda in the great tumult, the Ulgulan, of 1899 to 1900, against the loss of their land and the work of the missionaries. Birsa, revered as Dharti Aba, the father of the earth, became a legend, and although the rising fell just beyond 1885 it was the climax of the tribal struggle.

Distinguishing the wider revolt: many other peoples rose in the same decades, the Bhil of western India, the Khond of the Odisha hills against the suppression of their customs and new taxes, and the Koya of the eastern hills. The colonial state met each with force, but the memory of resistance endured.

The Peasant and Agrarian Movements

Titu Mir, the Indigo Revolt, Pabna and the Deccan Riots

What is the significance of the peasant movements: the cultivators of the plains struck at the planter, the zamindar and the moneylender. Titu Mir led a rising in Barasat in 1831 against the zamindars and indigo planters, and the great Indigo Revolt of 1859 to 1860 in Bengal, led by the Biswas brothers, forced the planters back and won an Indigo Commission.

Distinguishing the agrarian leagues: the Pabna agrarian league of 1873 in East Bengal fought the rack-renting zamindars for the occupancy rights of the ryots, and the Deccan Riots of 1875 in Maharashtra saw the ryots burn the debt bonds of the Marwari moneylenders. The movements are set out below.

The Peasant and Agrarian MovementsThe risings of the cultivator against planter, zamindar and moneylenderSanyasi and FakirBengal after the famineof 1770; armed asceticsand peasantsTitu Mir, 1831Barasat in Bengal;against zamindars andindigo plantersThe Indigo RevoltBengal, 1859-60; theBiswas brothers againstthe indigo plantersThe Pabna league, 1873East Bengal; an agrarianleague for theoccupancy rights of ryotsThe Deccan Riots, 1875Maharashtra; ryots burnthe bonds of theMarwari moneylendersThe legislative answerThe Deccan Act 1879 andthe Bengal Tenancy Act1885 followedThe cultivators struck at the planter, the zamindar and the moneylender who fed on their toil.
Figure 4. The peasant and agrarian movements.

The Legislative Response: The Bengal Tenancy Act 1885 and the Deccan Act

Reluctant Protection in Law

What is the significance of the legislative response: the risings forced the colonial state to grant a measure of protection in law. The Deccan Agriculturists' Relief Act of 1879 was passed after the Deccan Riots to shield the indebted ryot from the moneylender and from the easy sale of his land.

Distinguishing the Bengal Tenancy Act: the agrarian movements of Bengal, above all the Pabna league, led to the Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885, which gave occupancy rights to ryots who had held their land for a fixed period. The protection was limited and late, but it showed that resistance from below could move the state.

Significance: The Popular Base of Anti-Colonial Resistance

The Meaning of the Uprisings

What is the significance of the uprisings together: they were the first resistance to colonial rule and by far the most numerous, drawing in millions of the poorest Indians long before the Congress was founded. They showed that the colonial order was resented at its very base.

Distinguishing their limits: yet the risings were local, scattered and traditional, lacking a common organisation or a national aim, and each was crushed in turn. They could shake the colonial order but not overturn it. The century of revolt is set out below.

A Century of Revolt, 1770 to 1885The popular risings against colonial rule1770sSanyasi and FakirBengal after the famine1831Kol and Titu MirChotanagpur and Bengal1855Santhal HulSidhu and Kanhu rise1859Indigo RevoltBengal against theplanters1875Deccan RiotsRyots against moneylenders1885Bengal Tenancy ActOccupancy rights at lastFor over a century the people of the soil resisted, and at last won some protection in law.
Figure 5. A century of revolt, 1770 to 1885.

The Legacy of Resistance

Contemporary linkages run from these risings to the peasant and tribal movements of the national era, from Champaran and Bardoli to the tribal struggles for land and forest rights that continue today. The grievances of the soil never went away.

The larger significance is that the tribal and peasant uprisings were the deep, popular foundation of the freedom struggle, the proof that opposition to colonial rule reached far below the educated class. The table and points below gather the threads, and the next part turns to the early political associations and the road to the Indian National Congress.

Table 1. Some of the chief tribal and peasant uprisings before 1885.
Uprising Region Year Against
Kol uprising Chotanagpur 1831 Land transfer to outsiders
Santhal Hul Rajmahal hills 1855 Zamindars and moneylenders
Indigo Revolt Bengal 1859-60 The indigo planters
Pabna agrarian league East Bengal 1873 Rack-renting zamindars
Deccan Riots Maharashtra 1875 The Marwari moneylenders
  • The Sanyasi and Fakir Rebellion in Bengal was among the earliest revolts against Company rule.
  • The Kol (1831), the Santhal Hul (1855) and the Munda Ulgulan rose against the loss of tribal land to outsiders.
  • The Indigo Revolt (1859-60) and the Deccan Riots (1875) struck at the planters and the moneylenders.
  • The Deccan Agriculturists’ Relief Act (1879) and the Bengal Tenancy Act (1885) were the reluctant legislative answer.
  • Local and scattered, the uprisings were crushed, but they were the popular base of anti-colonial resistance.

Prelims MCQ practice

Each question below tests one specific concept on the topic. Click to reveal the answer and a full option-wise explanation.

Q1. The Santhal Hul of 1855, in the Rajmahal hills, was led by:

  1. Birsa Munda
  2. Sidhu and Kanhu
  3. Tirot Singh
  4. Titu Mir
Show answer and explanation

Answer: Sidhu and Kanhu

Explanation.

Option (b) is correct. The Santhal Hul of 1855 was led by the brothers Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu. Hence option (b).

Q2. The Kol uprising of 1831 broke out in the region of:

  1. the Rajmahal hills
  2. Chotanagpur
  3. the Khasi hills
  4. the Deccan
Show answer and explanation

Answer: Chotanagpur

Explanation.

Option (b) is correct. The Kol uprising of 1831 broke out in Chotanagpur. Hence option (b).

Q3. The Indigo Revolt of 1859 to 1860 was a rising of the ryots of Bengal against:

  1. the moneylenders
  2. the indigo planters
  3. the forest officials
  4. the missionaries
Show answer and explanation

Answer: the indigo planters

Explanation.

Option (b) is correct. The Indigo Revolt was directed against the European indigo planters. Hence option (b).

Q4. The Deccan Riots of 1875 in Maharashtra were directed mainly against:

  1. the indigo planters
  2. the zamindars
  3. the Marwari and Gujarati moneylenders
  4. the forest department
Show answer and explanation

Answer: the Marwari and Gujarati moneylenders

Explanation.

Option (c) is correct. The Deccan Riots were directed against the moneylenders who had taken the ryots' land. Hence option (c).

Q5. Consider the following statements about the agrarian movements:

  1. The Pabna agrarian league of 1873 fought for the occupancy rights of the ryots.
  2. The Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885 followed the agrarian movements of Bengal.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer and explanation

Answer: Both 1 and 2

Explanation.

Both statements are correct: the Pabna league fought for occupancy rights, and the Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885 followed the Bengal agrarian movements. Hence option (c).

Q6. The Munda rising known as the Ulgulan was led by:

  1. Sidhu Murmu
  2. Birsa Munda
  3. Tirot Singh
  4. Chakra Bisoi
Show answer and explanation

Answer: Birsa Munda

Explanation.

Option (b) is correct. The Munda Ulgulan was led by Birsa Munda. Hence option (b).

Sources and Further Reading

Editorial Disclaimer

This article is prepared for UPSC examination preparation. Verify key facts and interpretations against standard reference histories before relying on them.

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Part 15 of 18 · Modern India to 1885

Previous Part 14: Education and the Press under Colonial Rule Next Part 16: Early Political Associations and the Road to the Indian National Congress
All 18 parts in this cluster
  1. 1 Part 1: Decline of the Mughal Empire and Eighteenth-Century India
  2. 2 Part 2: The Rise of the Regional States in Eighteenth-Century India
  3. 3 Part 3: The Advent of the Europeans in India
  4. 4 Part 4: The Carnatic Wars and the British Conquest of Bengal
  5. 5 Part 5: British Expansion I: The Conquest of Mysore and the Marathas
  6. 6 Part 6: British Expansion II: Punjab, the Frontiers and Consolidation
  7. 7 Part 7: The Colonial Constitutional Framework, 1773 to 1861
  8. 8 Part 8: Governor-Generals I: From Warren Hastings to Lord Bentinck
  9. 9 Part 9: Lord Dalhousie and the Machinery of Modern Administration
  10. 10 Part 10: Land Revenue Systems and the Agrarian Economy
  11. 11 Part 11: Deindustrialisation, the Drain of Wealth and the Famines
  12. 12 Part 12: Socio-Religious Reform I: The Bengal Renaissance and Hindu Reform
  13. 13 Part 13: Socio-Religious Reform II: Muslim, Sikh, Anti-Caste Reform and the Woman Question
  14. 14 Part 14: Education and the Press under Colonial Rule
  15. 15 Part 15: Tribal and Peasant Uprisings before 1885 (this article)
  16. 16 Part 16: Early Political Associations and the Road to the Indian National Congress
  17. 17 Part 17: The Revolt of 1857: The Great Watershed
  18. 18 Part 18: Colonialism Assessed: Analytical Themes, Ready-Reckoners and the Verdict