Shikher Goyal

Shikher, a dedicated UPSC aspirant and proficient website administrator. Effortlessly managing the demands of his UPSC preparation and the intricacies of blog management.

What is Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005 Constitution | UPSC – IAS

What is Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005 Indian Constitution - UPSC IAS PCS Gk today PIB The Hindu

What is Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005 Indian Constitution - UPSC IAS PCS Gk today PIB The Hindu

Introduction to Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005 | UPSC – IAS

RTI stands for Right To Information and has been given the status of a fundamental right under Article 19(1) of the Constitution Right to Information (RTI) Act 2005 mandates timely response to citizen requests for government information by various Public Authorities under the government of India as well as the State Governments. The law imposes a penalty for wilful default by government officials. Citizens can ask for anything that the government can disclose to Parliament.

The basic object of the Right to Information Act is to:-

  • Empower the citizens,
  • Promote transparency and accountability in the working of the Government,
  • Contain corruption, and make our democracy work for the people in real sense.

It goes without saying that an informed citizen is better equipped to keep necessary vigil on the instruments of governance and make the government more accountable to the governed. The Act is a big step towards making the citizens informed about the activities of the Government.

  • BUT, Information that can prejudicially affect the sovereignty and integrity of India, like:– internal security, relations with foreign countries, intellectual property rights, breach of parliamentary privilege and impedes investigations cannot be shared with the public Cabinet papers are exempt until a decision has been implemented. However, discussions within the Cabinet can never be disclosed.

Significant Provisions under Right to Information Act, 2005 | UPSC – IAS

  • Section 2(h): Public authorities means all authorities and bodies under the Constitution or any other law, and inter alia includes all authorities under the Central, state governments and local bodies. The civil societies substantially funded, directly or indirectly, by the public funds also fall within the ambit.
  • Section 4 1(b): Maintain and proactively disclose information.
  • Section 6: Prescribes simple procedure for securing information.
  • Section 7: Fixes time limit for providing information(s) by PIOs.
  • Section 8: Only minimum information exempted from disclosure.
  • Section 19: Two tier mechanism for appeal.
  • Section 20: Provides penalties in case of failure to provide information on time, incorrect, incomplete or misleading or distorted information.
  • Section 23: Lower courts are barred from entertaining suits or applications. However, the writ jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and high courts under Articles 32 and 225 of the Constitution remains unaffected.

Achievements of Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005 | UPSC – IAS

  • The answer keys of civil service examination and IIT-JEE are now available on the websites of the Union Public Service Commission and IIT-JEE respectively, helping students to find out their scores even before the official announcement.
  • Assets and wealth declaration of all public servants – PM and his entire council of ministers, civil servants — are now in the public domain.

Criticism of Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005 | UPSC – IAS

  • Poor record-keeping practices within the bureaucracy results in missing files.
  • Lack of infrastructure and staff for running Information Commissions.
  • Dilution of supplementary laws such as the one for whistleblower protection.
  • Lack of Proactive declaration of information by the government as stipulated in RTI law increase applications.
  • Need to put all RTI replies on government websites to curb unnecessary applications.
  • Increasing frivolous RTI applications. (Public authorities have also complained some applicants of using RTI for blackmail).
  • The Right to Information Act (RTI), 2015 is an Act of the Parliament of India – to provide for setting out the practical regime of right to information for citizens. ”Simply put, it allows citizens of the country to request information from any public authority about its work, actions, etc”

Significance of Right to Information (RTI) Act | UPSC – IAS

  • Improved citizen-government partnership 
  • Greater transparency which gives citizens right to access information regarding rules, regulation, plans & expenditure of govt.
  • Greater accountability in the working of the Government.
  • To check corruption.
  • To make our democracy work for the people in real sense.

Bringing Political Parties under RTI (An Analysis) | UPSC – IAS

Recently the Supreme Court has asked the six national parties why they should not be brought under the RTI.

Background Information:

  • The Central Information Commission tried to bring political parties under the ambit of the RTI, the previous UPA government tried to amend the Act to nullify the order.
  • Political parties have neither challenged the CIC’s order nor complied with it. Now the CIC reiterated its order as final and binding and admitted it was unable to act against the parties that had not replied to its notices and had ignored its order.
  • It was replied that the CIC has made a very liberal interpretation of Section 2 (h) of the RTI Act, leading to an erroneous conclusion that political parties are public authorities under the RTI Act.
  • Political parties are not established or constituted by or under the Constitution or by any other law made by Parliament. And the registration of a political party under the 1951 Act was not the same as establishment of a government body.
  • It said information about a political body was already in the public domain on the website of the Election Commission.

Issues Related to this:

  • If the CIC cannot enforce its orders it means that the RTI Act is effectively null and void.
  • But the real issue is not only about whether the CIC can or cannot enforce its orders. It is also about whether political parties should be under the RTI. That they control tax money when in power. No other category of organisations has that power. Applying this, the political parties definitely need to be under the RTI. The spirit behind the Act is that organisations that use or control public resources need to be accountable to the public and open to scrutiny.
  • Similarly, the Election Commission, which is a party to the case before the Supreme Court, has been unable to check financial irregularities among political parties; it does not have either the ability or the mandate to verify the claims of ‘donations’ made to political parties. Although parties have to declare to the Election Commission all donations in excess of Rs.20,000 they receive, they resort to under-reporting to evade this clause. Most of the donations are shown as having come in smaller sums. So the political parties definitely need to be under the RTI.
  • Moreover whether companies and NGOs should come under the RTI. Companies and NGOs do not have the power that parties have and often enough do not even use taxpayer money. But they should also accept being under the RTI in keeping with the spirit of a modern, open, democratic society.
  • Parties are a vital part of democracy and are trustees of people’s resources. Therefore, they should be more responsible and accountable if they break the law.
  • On the other side, if a citizen defy law like anti-sedition law and get away with it. He or she could be arrested immediately. The only remedy for him or her is to go to court. So, how political parties can defy the law and get away with it, without even bothering to challenge the CIC order in court. Democracy cannot thrive when lawmakers break the law.
  • Public respect for political parties is already at an all-time low and such actions by them will only strengthen this further. Faith in law and order, and where the weak and the powerful are supposed to be treated equal is also very low. This further undermines democracy.
  • It will be very difficult for Parliament to pass an amendment to exempt only political parties from the RTI while retaining other organisations under it. It would be struck down as being unconstitutional as an earlier judgment in fact did to an amendment to the Representation of the People Act (RP) Act which exempt candidates from disclosing their assets.
  • Political Party objected that minutes of internal meetings of a political party – that discuss party strategy or suitability of candidates for ticket distribution etc – cannot be made public, are excuses. It can easily be dealt with by suitable exemptions which are in any case available under the existing RTI Act.

Conclusion | UPSC – IAS

  • The Right to Information (Amendment) Bill 2013 was introduced on August 12 in the Lower House. It was to make it clear that the definition of public authority shall not include any political party registered under the Representation of the People Act.
  • Real democracy is where political parties are not mere vote gathering machines, but are vibrant, democratic organisations that are truly representative of the people, by the people and, most importantly, for the people. Public respect for political parties is already at an all-time low and such actions by them will only strengthen this further. To maintain faith in law and order, where the weak and the powerful are supposed to be treated equal, amendment should be reconsidered.

A Way Forward and Suggestions | UPSC – IAS

  • Despite these issues, the role of RTI is significant. Specially, the culture of transparency brought about by the RTI act of 2005.
  • Act in the past decade has now made it easier for citizens to access parliamentary proceedings online, and track proceedings of various State legislatures etc. However, it needs to be developed further e.g. the legislatures in the Northeast and lower courts are yet to put up documents regarding their proceedings proactively.
  • Besides it, the recent proposed amendment i.e. Whistleblowers Protection (Amendment), Bill, 2015, passed by the Lok Sabha has renewed concerns regarding the vulnerability of information seekers making disclosures in the public interest.
  • The amendments do not provide immunity to whistleblowers, making them liable for prosecution under the Official Secrets Act. The Bill completely dilutes the provisions of the earlier law removing everything exempted under Section 8 (1) of the RTI Act from within the ambit of whistle-blowing.
  • A whistle-blower cannot make an anonymous complaint and cannot divulge any corruption matter related to national security, information received from a foreign government in confidence, cabinet papers including deliberations of the council of ministers, and a number of other matters. The Whistleblowers Act seeks to protect whistleblowers who report corruption, abuse of power or a crime to the government’s designated authority.
  • For most government servants, the Central Vigilance Commission is the designated authority to whom whistleblowers have to send their disclosures. Under the amendments, whistleblowers cannot seek protection under this law if this disclosure contains any information that cannot be accessed under the right to information law. To conclude, the need is to improve the implementation part and moreover to protect information seekers.

Role of Women and Women’s Organizations in India | UPSC – IAS

Women Empowerment in India | UPSC - IAS

Women Empowerment in India | UPSC - IAS

Role of Women and Women’s Organizations in India | UPSC – IAS

(An Introduction and Analysis)

Indian Society, which is largely male dominated, for the position of women in society. Not only men, even most women internalize their position in society as a fair description of their status through the ages. These generalizations apply to some degree to practically every known society in the world.

  • Women play various roles in their lifetime ranging from a mother to that of a breadwinner but are almost always subordinated to male authority; largely excluded from high status occupation and decision making both at work and at home.
  • Paradoxically, even in our Indian society where women goddesses are worshipped, women are denied an independent identity and status.

In recent years, particularly with the rise of Women’s Liberation Movement, this discrimination against women has been widely debated. Two main positions have emerged from this debate. One maintains that this inequality between the sexes is based upon the biologically or genetically based differences between men and women. This view is opposed by the argument that gender roles are culturally determined and inequality between the sexes is a result of a long drawn process of socialization.

Women’s Liberation Movement | UPSC – IAS

Social movement: It is defined as an organized effort by a group of people, either to bring or resist change, in the society.

Objective: Women’s movement is a variant of social movement & it aims to bring changes in the institutional arrangements, values, customs and beliefs in the society that have subjugated women over the years.

Origin: British rule led to spread of English education and western liberal ideology resulted in a number of movements for social change & religious reform in 19th C. Women’s movement is linked to both social reform movements & the nationalist movement.

Social reform movements | UPSC – IAS

Brahmo Samaj:It was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1825 & attempted to abolish restrictions and prejudices against women, which included child marriage, polygamy, limited rights to inherit property. Education was seen as the major factor to improve the position of women.

    • Civil Marriage Act, 1872 was passed, which permitted inter-caste marriage, legalized divorce and
      fixed 14 and 18 as the minimum age of marriage for girls and boys respectively
    • Raja Ram Mohan Roy played an important role in getting Sati abolished
  • Prarthana Samaj:It was founded by MG Ranade & RG Bhandarkar in 1867. Its objectives were more or less similar to that of Brahmo samaj but remained confined to western India. Justice Ranade criticized child marriage, polygamy, restriction on remarriage of widows and non access to education.
  • Arya Samaj: It was founded by Dayanand Saraswati in 1875. Unlike the above two it was a religious revivalist movement. It advocated reform in the caste system, compulsory education for men and women, prohibition of child marriage by law, remarriage of child widows. It was opposed to divorce & widow remarriage in general.
  • Social reformers mentioned above eulogized the position of women in ancient India. However radicals like Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Jyotiba Phule and Lokhitwadi Gopal Hari Deshmukh accused the caste system responsible for the subjugation of women in society.
  • Similar movements began in Islamic community as well. Begum of Bhopal, Syed Ahmad Khan & Sheikh
    Abdullah in Aligarh and Karmat Hussain in Lucknow spearheaded a movement to improve women’s education.
  • Movement Weakness: Gender equality was never an agenda for any of the movements mentioned above. They had a very limited perspective of changing the position of women within the family through education, as education would improve women’s efficiency as housewives and mothers !

Legislative Acts | UPSC – IAS

Parliament from time to time has passed several legislations to empower women & to provide them a legal basis in their fight for equality & justice. Some of them are:

  • Sati (Prevention) Act 1987 – The practice of Sati which was first abolished in 1829, was revised and made illegal in 1887. It provided for a more effective prevention of the commission of sati and its glorification and for matters connected therewith.
  • Amendment to criminal Act 1983– This Act talks about domestic violence as an offence, rape is also made a punishable offence.
  • Special Marriage Act 1954 – It has been amended to fix the minimum age of marriage at 21 yrs for males & 18 yrs for females.
  • Hindu Succession Act 1956– Equal share to daughter from property of father, while a widow has the right to inherit husband’s property. An amendment in this Act in 2005 enabled daughters to have equal share in ancestral properties.
  • Immoral Traffic Prevention Act (ITPA), 1986 – Suppression of Immoral Trafficking in women and girls Act (SITA) 1956 was amended in 1986 & renamed ITPA. SITA was enacted to prohibit or abolish traffic in women and girls for purposes of prostitution. It was amended to cover both the sexes & provided enhanced penalties for offenses involving minors. However the system has failed to crack the mafia working both at interstate and international levels.
  • Dowry Prohibition Act 1961 – Now court is empowered to act in his own knowledge or on a complaint by any recognized welfare organization on dowry murder. Indian Evidence Act is also amended to shift the burden of proof to husband & his family where bride dies within 7 yrs of marriage.
  • Maternity benefit Act 1961- An Act to regulate the employment of women for certain period before and after childbirth and to provide for maternity benefits like paid leaves for 6 months.
  • Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act 1971- Legalize abortion in case if fetus is suffering from physical or mental abnormality, in case of rape & unwanted pregnancy within 12 weeks of gestation period & after 12th week, before 20th week if the pregnancy is harmful for the mother or the child born would be severely deformed.
  • Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986– This Act prohibits indecent representation of women through advertisements or in publications, writings, paintings, and figures or in any other manner and for matters connected therewith.
  • Domestic Violence Act 2005– It seeks to determine domestic violence in all forms against women & make it a punishable offence.
  • Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2013– In the backdrop of Dec 16 gang rape, this Act was passed amending the CrPC. The new law has provisions for increased sentence for rape convicts, including lifeterm and death sentence, besides providing for stringent punishment for offences such as acid attacks, stalking and voyeurism. Through the revised Bill, the government has amended various sections of the Indian Penal Code, the Code of Criminal Procedure, the Indian Evidence Act and the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act.

Constitutional Provisions for women in Indian constitution | UPSC – IAS

  • Article 14 – Men and women to have equal rights and opportunities in the political, economic and social spheres.
  • Article 15(1) – Prohibits discrimination against any citizen on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex etc.
  • Article 15(3)- Special provision enabling the State to make affirmative discriminations in favor of women.
  • Article 16- Equality of opportunities in matter of public appointments for all citizens.
  • Article 23- Bans trafficking in human and forced labor
  • Article 39(a)– The State shall direct its policy towards securing all citizens men and women, equally,the right to means of livelihood.
  • Article 39(d)- Equal pay for equal work for both men and women.
  • Article 42– The State to make provision for ensuring just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief.
  • Article 51 (A)(e)- To renounce the practices derogatory to the dignity of women
  • Article 300 (A)– Right of property to women
  • 73rd & 74th Amendment Act 1992- Reservation of 1/3rd of seats in local bodies of panchayats and municipalities for women.

(The day on which 73rd amendment became operational i.e April 24th is also declared as Women’s Empowerment Day).

Conclusion:- Though at the time of our independence our constitution guaranteed social, economic & political equality, rights & protection to the Indian women however in reality we have still not been able to provide their due status in the society which has had led to the resurgence of issue based movements earlier in 1970s & has gained momentum again recently like anti dowry movement, anti rape movements etc.

Indicators of Women’s Status in India | UPSC – IAS

There are different forms of violence on women, which act as threats to women’s independent identity and dignity. Forms of violence are:

  • Female foeticide & infanticide – According to a survey by British medical journal, Lancet, nearly 10 million female abortions have taken place in India in the last 20 years, which is rampant amongst the educated Indian middle class as well.
    • There are organizations like Swanchetan, which are working towards educating & bringing awareness in people against the ghastly act.
  • Rape, sexual harassment & abuse – It acts as a deterrent to women’s freedom & perpetuates the notion that women are the weaker sex. Every 2 hours, a rape occurs somewhere in India! The recent Dec. 16 Delhi Gang rape case, shook the entire country and led to protests all across the country, setting up of Justice Verma panel & helped in the fast track judgment of the case. However rampant cases of rape of Dalit women, acid attacks, eve teasing go unnoticed.
  • Domestic violence and dowry deaths – Violence on women in the family were considered family problems and were never acknowledged as “crimes against women” until recently. It is prevalent in all classes of society.
  • Prostitution – A large number of women destitute or victims of rape who are disowned by family fall prey to prostitution forcibly. There are no governmental programs to alleviate the problem of prostitution.
  • Objectification of women – Indecent Representation of Women(Prohibition) Act, 1986 prohibits indecent representation of women through advertisements or in publications, writings, paintings etc. However a whole lot of indecent representation of women is done through literature, media, paintings etc upholding the “right to freedom of expression”.

Demographic Profile of Women in India | UPSC – IAS

  • Sex Ratio – Sex ratio is used to describe the number of females per 1000 of males. As per census 2011 sex ratio for India is 940 females per 1000 of males, i.e. females form a meager 47% of the total population. The State of Haryana has the lowest sex ratio in India and the figure shows a number of 877 of females to that of 1000 males while Kerala has the highest of 1084 females per 1000 males
  • Health –Studies on hospital admissions and records have shown that males get more medical care compared to girls. 2% of the female population is absolute anaemic. 12% of the female population of the country suffers from repeated pregnancy (80% of their productive life is spent in pregnancy) & lack of nutrition.
  • Literacy – The female literacy levels according to the Literacy Rate 2011 census are 65.46% where the male literacy rate is over 80%. While Kerala has the highest female literacy rate of 100% , Bihar is at the lowest with only 46.40%
  • Employment –Of the total female population 21.9% are a part of Indian workforce. Majority of women are employed in the rural areas and in agriculture. Amongst rural women workers 87% are employed in agriculture as laborers, cultivators, self employed like hawkers etc i.e in the unorganized sector which almost always remains invisible. Despite the equal remuneration Act 1976, women are paid lower wages, occupy lower skilled jobs, have less access to skill training and promotion.
  • Political status– Though India had a women Prime Minister Late Ms Indira Gandhi, women are not fairly represented in the Parliament & other State & Local bodies. With only around 9 per cent women in upper house and around 11 per cent in the lower house of parliament, India ranks 99th in the world in terms of female representation among MPs.

However 73rd & 74th amendments to the constitution have ensured the participation of women in PRIs with a reservation of 1/3rd for women. Today more than 30 million women are actively participating in the political decision making process at the grass root.

Factors affecting women’s work participation | UPSC – IAS

Women’s work participation rate in general has been declining over the decades. The decline has occurred due to several factors:

  • Absence of comprehensive and rational policy for women’s emancipation through education, training and access to resources such as land, credit and technology etc.
  • The perception of male as the breadwinner of the family despite the fact that in low income households women’s income is crucial for sustenance. This perception adversely affects women’s education & training. Employers also visualize women workers as supplementary workers & also cash in on this perception to achieve their capitalistic motives by keeping the wage low for women.
  • Structural changes in the economy e.g decline in traditional rural industries or industrialization.
  • Lack of assets (land, house) in their own name in order to have access to credit and self employment opportunities
  • Huge demand of time and energy of women for various tasks at home like child bearing and rearing etc
    in addition to participation in labour force leave them with little time for education, training and self development
  • Division of labour based on the gender between men and women & technological advancements work against women. They are the last to be hired and first to be sacked.
  • Govt. programs to increase employment and productivity are focused more on men & women are seen as beneficiaries rather than active participants

Indian Women’s Organizations  | UPSC – IAS

Due to women’s movement several legislations were passed like Equal Remuneration Act, Minimum Wage Act, Maternity Benefit Act etc. to ensure equal status to women in society & more importantly at work. However illiteracy amongst the major women workforce (87% of women are employed in unorganized sector), fear of losing employment & lack of awareness of the laws enacted to protect them, make it difficult for women to benefit from them.

A few organizations are working to give voice to the women workers for improvement in their working conditions:

  • Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA)– SEWA is a trade union. It is an organization of poor, self employed women workers in the unorganized sector of the country. They are the unprotected labour force as they do not obtain benefits like the workers of organized sector. SEWA’s main goals are to organize women workers for full employment.
  • Working Women’s Forum (WWF)- The forum is committed to poverty reduction and strengthening of economic, social and cultural status of poor working women, through micro-credit, training, social mobilization and other interventions to poor women..
  • Annapurna Mahila Mandal (AMM)– It works for welfare of women and the girl child. It conducts various activities that include educating women on health, nutrition, mother and child care, family planning, literacy and environmental sanitation. It works for the empowerment of women and enables them to take their own decisions and fight for security and rights. The organization also promotes individual and group leadership.

Conclusion | UPSC – IAS

Education & Economic independence of women & awareness amongst the masses are the most important weapons to eradicate this inhumane behavior of the society towards the female sex. We are slowly but steadily heading towards an era of change & hope to see the light of change, shine on the weaker sex, as it is called one day.

Concurrent list & Seventh Schedule Article 246 Indian Constitution | UPSC

Concurrent list & Seventh Schedule Article 246 Indian Constitution UPSC IAS PCS UPPCS UPPSC

Concurrent list & Seventh Schedule Article 246 Indian Constitution UPSC IAS PCS UPPCS UPPSC

What does Article 246 (Seventh Schedule) convey ?  | UPSC IAS | PCS

The Constitution provides a scheme for demarcation of powers through three ‘lists’ in the seventh schedule.

  • The union list details the subjects on which Parliament may make laws e.g. defence, foreign  affairs, railways, banking, among others.
  • The state list details those under the purview of state legislatures e.g. Public order,  police, public health and sanitation; hospitals and dispensaries, betting and gambling  etc.
  • The concurrent list has subjects in which both Parliament and state  legislatures have jurisdiction e.g. Education including technical education, medical  education and universities, population control and family planning, criminal law, prevention  of cruelty to animals, protection of wildlife and animals, forests etc.
  • The Constitution also provides federal supremacy to Parliament on concurrent list  items i.e. in case of a conflict; a central law will override a state law.

Devolution of power

  • Time and again centre-state relations come under scanner due to rising demands from various corners of the country for more power devolution in favor of states.
  • The Indian governance system though federal in nature has strong central tendencies which born out of a mix causes i.e. the inertia to stay within the guidelines set by the Government of India act of 1935, fear of cessation etc.

Centralization of power vis a vis Concurrent list | UPSC IAS | PCS

  • Since 1950, the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution has seen a number of amendments. The Union List and Concurrent List have grown while subjects under the State List have gradually reduced.
  • The 42nd Amendment Act was implemented in 1976, restructured the Seventh Schedule ensuring that State List subjects like education, forest, protection of wild animals and birds, administration of justice, and weights and measurements were transferred to the Concurrent List.
  • The Tamil Nadu government constituted the PV Rajamannar Committee to look into Centre-State relations. It spurred other states to voice their opposition to this new power relation born due to 42nd amendment act and Centre’s encroachment on subjects that were historically under the state list. Parliament on concurrent list items i.e. in case of a conflict; a central law will override a state law.

Issues with Concurrent list | UPSC IAS | PCS

  • Limited capacity of states: Some laws enacted by Parliament in the concurrent list might require state governments to allocate funds for their implementation. But due to federal supremacy while the states are mandated to comply with these laws they might not have enough financial resources to do so.
  • Balance between flexibility and uniformity: Some laws leave little flexibility for states to sync the laws according to their needs for achieving uniformity. A higher degree of detail in law ensures uniformity across the country and provides the same level of protection and rights however, it reduces the flexibility for states to tailor the law for their different local conditions.
  • Infringement in the domain of states: Some Bills may directly infringe upon the rights of states i.e. relates to central laws on subjects that are in the domain of state legislatures. E.g. anti-terrorist laws, Lokpal bill, issues with GST and Aadhar etc. where states’ power are taken away in a cloaked manner.
  • This asymmetry highlights the need for a detailed public debate on federalism and treatment of items in the concurrent list.

What can be done ? | UPSC IAS | PCS

  • Strengthening of Inter-State Council: Over the year committees starting from Rajamannar, Sarkaria and Punchi have recommended strengthening of Interstate Council where the concurrent list subjects can be debated and discussed, balancing Centre state powers. There is far less institutional space to settle inter-state frictions therefore a constitutional institution like ISC can be a way forward.
  • Autonomy to states: Centre should form model laws with enough space for states to maneuver. Centre should give enough budgetary support to states so as to avoid budgetary burden. There should be least interference in the state subjects.

Sarkaria Commission Recommendation on Concurrent List | UPSC IAS | PCS

  • The residuary powers of taxation should continue to remain with the Parliament, while the other residuary powers should be placed in the Concurrent List.
  • The Centre should consult the states before making a law on a subject of the Concurrent List.
  • Ordinarily, the Union should occupy only that much field of a concurrent subject on which uniformity of policy and action is essential in the larger interest of the nation, leaving the rest and details for state action.

Frequently Asked Questions  | UPSC IAS | PCS

What is the concept behind concurrent list in India ?

  • The aim of the concurrent list was to ensure uniformity across the country where  independently both centre and state can legislate. Thus, a model law with enough flexibility for  states was originally conceived in the constitution.
  • Also, few concurrent list subjects required huge finances needing both centre and state to contribute.

How many lists are there in the Indian Constitution ?

  • The State List or List-II is a list of 61 items (Initially there were 66 items in the list) in Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India. The legislative section is divided into three lists: Union List, State List and Concurrent List.  Both union and state governments have powers to legislate on the subjects mentioned in the concurrent list.
  • Through the 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 Five subjects were transferred from State to Concurrent List. They are:
    1. Education
    2. Forests
    3. Weights & Measures
    4. Protection of Wild Animals and Birds
    5. Administration of Justice
  • Solutions are needed quickly” Education is a subject which touches every person, every family and every institution in this country. And because it is such a sensitive subject, any reform of the education process must be handled with great sensitivity and care. Education came into the Concurrent List way back in 1976.

UN Global Counter-Terrorism Coordination Compact Task Force | UPSC

UN Global Counter-Terrorism Coordination Compact Task Force UPSC IAS UPPSC UPPCS PCS SSC THe Hindu Gk today

UN Global Counter-Terrorism Coordination Compact Task Force UPSC IAS UPPSC UPPCS PCS SSC THe Hindu Gk today

About UN Global Counter-Terrorism Coordination Compact Task Force | UPSC – IAS

Recently, UN launched a new framework “UN Global Counter-Terrorism Coordination Compact”.

  • It is an agreement between the UN chief, 36 organizational entities, the International Criminal Police Organisation (INTERPOL) and,
  • The World Customs Organisation, to better serve the needs of Member States when it comes to tackling the scourge of international terrorism.

Objective of the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Coordination Compact | UPSC – IAS

  • To ensure that the United Nations system provides coordinated capacity-building support to Member States, at their request, in implementing the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy and other relevant resolutions.
  • To foster close collaboration between the Security Council mandated bodies and the rest of the United Nations system.
  • The UN Global Counter-Terrorism Compact Coordination Committee will oversee and monitor the implementation of the Compact which will be chaired by UN Under-Secretary-General for counter-terrorism. o It will replace the Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force, which was established in 2005 to strengthen UN system-wide coordination and coherence of counter-terrorism efforts.

Why there is a need for global compact for counter terrorism ? | UPSC – IAS |PCS

  • Coordination: Given the number of players involved, the enormity of the task for Counter terrorism, and the limited resources available, effective coordination is crucial.
  • Porous borders: In recent years, terrorist networks have evolved, moving away from a dependency on state sponsorship and many of the most dangerous groups and individuals now operate as non state actors.
  • Taking advantage of porous borders and interconnected international systems—finance, communications, and transit—terrorist groups can operate from every corner of the globe.
  • Incapacity of countries to control terrorist threats: Multilateral initiatives bolster state capacity to build institutions and programs that strengthen a range of activities, from policing to counter radicalization programs.
  • Emerging challenges: Vigilance against misuse of emerging technology such as artificial intelligence, drones and 3D (three-dimensional) printing, as well as against the use of hate-speech and distortion of religious beliefs by extremist and terrorist groups.

Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy | UPSC – IAS | PCS

  • The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) adopted it in 2006 and it is a unique global instrument to enhance national, regional and international efforts to counter terrorism.
  • UNGA reviews the Strategy every two years, making it a living document attuned to Member States’ counter-terrorism priorities.
  • The four pillars of the Global Strategy include:
    • Measures to address the conditions conducive to the spread of terrorism.
    • Measures to prevent and combat terrorism.
    • Measures to build state’s’ capacity to prevent and combat terrorism and to strengthen the role of the United Nations system in that regard.
    • Measures to ensure respect for human rights for all and the rule of law as the fundamental basis for the fight against terrorism.

Counter-terrorism – India’s involvement at UN | UPSC – IAS | PCS

  • India has prioritised the adoption of an intergovernmental framework to combat terrorism.
  • India introduced the Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism (CCIT) in 1996 that defined terrorism and enhanced “normative processes for the prosecution and extradition of terrorists.”
  • Active participation in several counter-terrorism discussions, such as drafting a Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy in the General Assembly in 2006, serving as a founding members of the Global Counter-Terrorism Forum (GCTF), and supporting counterterrorism mechanisms established by UN Security Council Resolutions, such as Resolutions 1267, 1988, and 1989 related to sanctions against Al-Qaeda/Taliban, Resolution 1373 establishing the Counter-Terrorism Committee, and Resolution 1540 addressing the non-proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction to terrorist organisations.

Eklavya Model Residential Schools – Tribal Education | UPSC – IAS

Eklavya Model Residential Schools - Tribal Education UPSC - IAS PCS UPPCS UPPSC Gk today The hindu Pib

Eklavya Model Residential Schools - Tribal Education UPSC - IAS PCS UPPCS UPPSC Gk today The hindu Pib

Current Status of Tribal Education in India| UPSC – IAS | PCS

  • Low Literacy Level: According to census 2011 literacy rate for STs is 59% compared to national average of 73%.
  • Interstate disparity: Wide Interstate disparity exists across the states e.g. in Mizoram and Lakshadweep STs literacy is more than 91% whereas in Andhra Pradesh it is 49.2%. In fact, in most of the north eastern states like Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland, STs are at par with the general population.
  • Gender disparity: Literacy level among STs men is at 68.5% but for women it is still below 50%

Constitutional provisions for Tribal education | UPSC – IAS | PCS

  • Article 46 of Indian constitution lays down that, the state shall promote, with special care, the educational and economic interests of weaker sections of the people, and in particular, of the scheduled caste and scheduled tribes.
  • Article 29(1) provides distinct languages script or culture. This article has special significance for scheduled tribes.
  • Article 154(4) empowers the state to make any special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizen or for SCs or STs.
  • Article 275(1) provides Grants in-Aids to states (having scheduled tribes) covered under fifth and six schedules of the constitution.
  • Article 350A states that state shall provide adequate facilities for instruction in mother-tongue at the primary stage of education.

About Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) | UPSC – IAS | PCS

  • Ministry of Tribal Affairs is implementing Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) in tribal areas for providing education on the pattern of Navodaya Vidyalaya, the Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas and the Kendriya Vidyalayas.
  • The establishing of Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) is based on the demand of the concerned States/UTs with the availability of land as an essential attribute.
  • Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) are set up in States/UTs with grants under Article 275(1) of the Constitution of India.
  • Management of each Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) is under a committee which include, among others, reputed local NGOs involved with education.

Objectives of Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) | UPSC – IAS | PCS

  • Provide quality middle and high-level education to Scheduled Tribe (ST) students in remote areas.
  • Enable them to avail of reservation in high and professional educational courses and in jobs in government and public and private sectors.
  • Construction of infrastructure that provides education, physical, environmental and cultural needs of student life.

Coverage of Scheme | UPSC – IAS | PCS

  • As per existing guidelines at least one Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) is to be set up in each Integrated Tribal Development Agency (ITDA)/ Integrated Tribal Development Project (ITDP) having 50% ST population in the area.
  • As per the budget 2018-19, every block with more than 50% ST population and at least 20,000 tribal persons, will have an Eklavya Model Residential School  (EMRS) by the year 2022.

Challenges to tribal education | UPSC – IAS | PCS

  • Poor socio-economic condition
    • Most of the tribal community is economically backward and sending their children to school is like a luxury to them. They prefer their children to work to supplement the family income.
    • Illiteracy of parents and their attitude towards education is indifferent, as well as their community never encourages the education of children.
    • Parents are not willing to send their daughters to co-educational institutions due to safety concerns.

Lack of infrastructure:

  • Schools in tribal regions lacks in teaching learning materials, study materials, minimum sanitary provisions etc.

Linguistic barriers:

  • In most of the states, official/regional languages are used for classroom teaching and these are not understood by the tribal children at primary level. Lack of use of mother tongue cause hindrance in initial basic education and learning (despite article 350-A).

Teacher related challenges:

  • Inadequate number of trained teachers is a big problem in imparting education to tribal children. Also, Irregularity of the teachers in school and their different background lead to failure in establishing a communication bridge with tribal students.

Apathy of tribal leadership:

  • Tribal leadership generally remains under the outside influences and agencies such as the administration, political parties. Tribal leaders began to exploit their own people politically, socially and economically.
  • Village autonomy and local self-governance has still not properly established. Poor law and order situation and loss of respect for authority is also a hurdle.

High illiteracy rate among tribal women:

  • The disparity in educational levels is even worse as the Scheduled Tribe women have the lowest literacy rates in India.

How to Improve tribal education ? | UPSC – IAS | PCS

  • Infrastructural development: More Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) in remaining tribal regions as well as better infrastructure in other schools such as adequate class rooms, teaching aids, electricity, separate toilets etc. should be furnished.
  • Emphasis on career or job-oriented courses: E.g. Livelihood College (Dantewada, Bastar) offers nearly 20 courses, in soft and industrial skills, and has created many job opportunities for tribal youth.
  • Local recruitment of teachers: They understand and respect tribal culture and practices and most importantly are acquainted with the local language. TSR Subramanian committee suggested Bilingual System- combination of local language and mother tongue.
  • Teacher Training: New teacher training institutes should be opened in tribal sub plan areas to meet the requirement of trained teachers.
  • Student safety: There must be strong machinery to protect students from abuse, neglect, exploitation, and violence.
  • Establish separate school for girls: This would reduce hesitation of some parents to send their daughters to co-educational institution.
  • Enhance awareness: Government should take some specific initiative such as awareness camp, street drama, counseling etc. which can create awareness among the tribals about the importance of education.
  • Regular monitoring by high level officials: This is necessary for smooth functioning of school administration.

Permanent Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee (COSC) | UPSC

Permanent Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee (cosc) UPSC IAS PCS SSC The Hindu Gk today

Permanent Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee (cosc) UPSC IAS PCS SSC The Hindu Gk today

Current Structure in India of Chief of Staff Committee (CoSC)

  • The Chief of Staff Committee (CoSC) consists of Army, Navy and Air Force chiefs.
  • It is headed by the senior-most of the three chiefs in rotation till the he retires.
  • It is a platform where the three service chiefs discuss important military issues.

The three services have agreed on the appointment of a Permanent Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee (PCCoSC).

What is Permanent Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee (PCCoSC) ?

  • It is proposed to be headed by a four-star military officer, who will be equivalent to chiefs of army, airforce and navy.
  • He would look into joint issues of the services like training of troops, acquisition of weapon systems and joint operations of the services.
  • He would also be in-charge of the tri-services command at Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
  • The post has also been referred to as Chief of Defence Staff.
  • He will head the Chiefs of Staff Committee meetings.
  • Various committees such as the Kargil Review committee led by K Subramaniam and the Naresh Chandra committee of 2011 recommended a permanent chairman.

Arguments in favour of Permanent Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee (PCCoSC)

  • Better Coordination: It will improve jointness in military command by integration in projects and resource sharing. For example during 1962 and 1965, all three segments of the armed forces face difficulties in coordination.
  • Unfragmented advice: The PCCoSC is envisaged as a single-point military adviser to the government.
  • Better defence acquisition: It would also improve capacity of the armed forces on defence acquisition by removing time and cost overruns.
  • Quick Decision-making during War: Often during war a difficult decision can only be made by a specially selected defence chief and not by a committee like the CoSC that operates on the principle of the least common denominator.

Challenges to setting up  Permanent Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee (PCCoSC).

  • Threat to Democratic Process: It is apprehended that the Defence Services will become too powerful and subvert civilian control over the military with possibilities of a military coup.
  • • Status Quo: The present arrangement of Chief of Staff Committee (CoSC) has served us well over the years and hence there is resistance against “unnecessary change”.

Resistance within the armed forces

  • There is said to be inhibition amongst Service Chiefs over the years that their position would get undermined if the CDS were to be appointed.
  • The feeling among the smaller Services, particularly the Air Force, of Army dominance in defence policy formulation. Some fear that a CDS may lead to a situation like the one that prevailed before 1947, when the Army was the dominant Service.

Resistance within Bureaucracy

  • There is said to opposition by the civilian bureaucracy as their control over the higher defence set up would be diminished.
  • Ceremonial Post: There is also a concern that the post may become a ceremonial post without any clear cut roles and responsibilities.

New E Commerce Rules, Regulation and Restriction in India 2019

Economic Concepts, Terms and Key Phrases | Glossary Investopedia

New E Commerce Rules, Regulation and Restriction in India 2019 The Hindu UPSC IAS PCS BPSC SSC Gk today

First Understanding the Models of E-Commerce – Marketplace Model

  • E-commerce Company provides an IT platform on a digital or electronic network to act as facilitator between buyers & sellers without warehousing the products.
  • It aggregates various retailers/brands and provide a sales channel (offers shipment, call centre, delivery and payment services) to them but cannot exercise ownership of the inventory.
  • It allows for a superior customer service experience, as many smaller brands have greater outreach now, with their fulfillment processes taken care of by online marketplaces. E.g. E-Bay/Shopclues etc
  • 100% FDI is allowed in marketplace model of e-commerce.

Inventory Model

  • Products are owned by the online shopping company. The whole process end-to-end, starting with product purchase, warehousing and ending with product dispatch, is taken care of by the company.
  • Allows speedier delivery, better quality control and improved customer experience and trust. But, it restricts cash flow and is difficult to scale
  • FDI in multi-brand retail is prohibited, including e-commerce retail (B2C); E.g. Jabong, YepMe etc.

Recently, government introduced changes in e-commerce norms which are said to be clarificatory in nature and are not new restrictions.

Changes introduced by the new rules

  • From February 1, 2019, e-commerce companies running marketplace platforms:-
    • Such as Amazon and Flipkart –  cannot sell products through companies, and of companies, in which they hold equity stake.
  • It put a cap of 25% on the inventory that a marketplace entity or its group companies can sell from a particular vendor. Inventory of a vendor will be deemed to be controlled by e-commerce marketplace entity if more than 25% its purchases are from the marketplace entity or its group companies.
  • No seller can be forced to sell its products exclusively on any marketplace platform, and that all vendors on the e-commerce platform should be provided services in a “fair and non-discriminatory manner”.
    • Services include fulfilment, logistics, warehousing, advertisement, cashbacks, payments, and financing among others.
  • The marketplaces will not be allowed to offer deep discounts through their in house companies listed as sellers (check price cartelization).
  • E-commerce marketplace entity will be required to furnish a certificate along with a report of statutory auditor to Reserve Bank of India, confirming compliance of the guidelines, by September 30 every year for the preceding financial year.
  • E-commerce entities will have to maintain a level playing field and ensure that they do not directly or indirectly influence the sale price of goods and services.

The above mentioned rules explain certain principles laid down in a 2017 circular on the operations of online marketplaces, wherein 100% foreign direct investment through automatic route is allowed. Some other discussion points in the circular were as follows:

  • Scope of Marketplace Model: E-Marketplace would include warehousing, logistics, order fulfillment, call
    centre, payment collection etc.

    • The move was aimed at bringing new entrants/smaller players in the e-commerce business.
    • It would also increase the need for office spaces, warehouses & logistics, providing a boost to the real estate business.
    • It would also check tax evasion through illegal warehousing.

Predatory Pricing

  • Predatory pricing (dominant player reducing prices to such an extent to edge out other players) is an anti-competition practice under Competition Act 2002. The government would appoint a regulator to check discounts offered by e-commerce players, so that they don’t sell below market prices & compliance with FDI norms.

Impact on E-commerce companies (UPSC IAS)

  • Most of e-commerce firms source goods from sellers who are related 3rd party entities. E.g. WS Retail contributes to 35-40% of Flipkart’s overall sales. Cloudtail India, the biggest retailer operating on Amazon, has its 49% equity held up by Amazon or its subsidiaries. Amazon also holds up 48% equity in another major retailer, Appario Retail. This will impact backend operations of e-commerce firms, as group entities would now have to be removed from the e-commerce value chain.
  • Also, players like Amazon and Flipkart, who have their private labels, will not be able to sell them on their platforms if they hold equity in the company manufacturing them.
  • Currently, most of the e-commerce are burning cash to attract consumer base and hence, are in deep losses. In the long run, this will help large companies build a viable business rather than just depend on discounts.

Retailers

  • The absence of large retailers will bring relief to small retailers selling on these platforms. Traditional brick-and-mortar stores, who now find it difficult to compete with the large e-commerce retailers with deep pockets, will become more competitive.
  • Marketplaces are meant for independent sellers, many of whom are MSMEs (Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises). These changes will enable a level playing field for all sellers, helping them leverage the reach of e-commerce.
  • But, it may also become difficult for small start-ups to raise funds from big e-retailer companies. Also, mandatory listing of inventory on different platforms may increase sales cost for MSMEs.
  • Consumers: Consumers may no longer enjoy the deep discounts offered by retailers that have a close association with marketplace entities.
  • Employment: The threat of job losses in the supply chain network has emerged as a major concern, as the number of e-commerce orders will go down, warehouse expansion plans may take a hit and the utilization of delivery executives will reduce, leading to significant job losses.
  • Growth of the sector: By 2022, the size of digital economy in India will be approximately $ 1 trillion and by 2030, it could constitute almost 50% of the entire economy. Licensing and price controls may depress a fast growing sector
  • International Trade Outlook: As 71 members led by countries like China, Japan and the US began exploring possible WTO framework on free cross-border e-commerce at Buenos Aires ministerial (2017), the new guidelines preempt any possible obligations on e-commerce imposed by WTO. It would enable Govt. to take a stand in international trade negotiations and discussions, which is fully cognizant of the need to preserve flexibility and create a level-playing field for domestic players.

A Way Forward (UPSC IAS)

  • E-Marketplaces should change their business model and begin to look at franchise channels, rather than equity investments channels, to do business in India.
  • The Government should come out with an E-Commerce policy which establishes a commonly accepted definition of e-commerce, provides a level playing field for domestic & foreign businesses. Draft E-Commerce Policy has already been submitted by the commerce ministry.
  • A single legislation should be enacted to address all aspects of e-commerce so that the legal fragmentation seen across the various laws is reduced, viz. the Information Technology Act, 2000, Consumer Protection Act 1986 etc.
  • Setting up an accreditation system for vetting e-commerce platforms which adhere to good business practices is the need of the hour.

Telerobotic Coronary Intervention Surgery – India World’s first | UPSC – IAS

Telerobotic Coronary Intervention Surgery - India World's first UPSC - IAS Gk today THe hindu PIB

Telerobotic Coronary Intervention Surgery - India World's first UPSC - IAS Gk today THe hindu PIB

India became the world’s first to successfully perform a telerobotic coronary intervention.

What is telerobotic coronary intervention? | UPSC – IAS | Pib

  • It is a robotic method of performing heart surgery. With the help of the internet and a robotic tower, a surgeon is able to treat patients from a distance.
  • This technology is especially important for high emergency situations of heart attacks and stroke, where ideal treatment must be received within 90 minutes or 24 hours.
  • This platform has the potential to improve patient access in rural & under-served populations and reduce
    treatment time, benefiting those groups, who have geographical barriers and low socio-economic status.
  • It will also reduce the variability in operator skills and improve clinical outcomes

Tele-robotics Applications | UPSC – IAS | Pib

  • Space: Most space exploration has been conducted with telerobotic space probes.
  • Telepresence and videoconferencing: The prevalence of high-quality video conferencing has enabled a drastic growth in telepresence robots to help give a better sense of remote physical presence for communication.
  • Marine applications: Marine remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) are widely used to work in water too deep or too dangerous for divers. They repair offshore oil platforms and attach cables to sunken ships to hoist them. They are usually attached by a tether to a control center on a surface ship.

Sunspot Cycle – Help Understanding Aditya L1 Mission | UPSC IAS

Sunspot Cycle UPSC IAS PCS the Hindu Gk today

Sunspot Cycle UPSC IAS PCS the Hindu Gk today

These two images of the Sun show how the number of sunspots varies over the course of a sunspot cycle. The image on the left, with many sunspots, was taken near solar max in March 2001. The right hand image, in which no spots are evident, was taken near solar min in January 2005. 
Images courtesy SOHO (NASA/ESA).

Recently, scientists from Indian Institute of Science Education and Research have developed a way of predicting the intensity of activity in the next solar cycle (from 2020 to 2031).

What is Sunspot Cycle?

  • The amount of magnetic flux that rises up to the Sun’s surface varies with time in a cycle called the solar cycle. This cycle lasts 11 years on average. This cycle is referred to as the sunspot cycle.
  • They are darker, magnetically strong, cooler areas on the surface of the sun in a region called the photosphere.

What is the Significance of this ?

  • It will help in understanding of the long-term variations of the Sun and its impact on earth climate which is one of the objectives of India’s first solar probe – ‘Aditya L1 Mission’.
  • The forecast will be also useful for scientific operational planning of the Aditya mission

How does Sunspot Cycle affect the Earth?

  • An important reason to understand sunspots is that they affect space weather.
  • During extreme events, space weather can affect electronics-driven satellite controls, communications systems, air traffic over polar routes and even power grids.
  • Some believe that they are correlated with climate on earth. For instance, during past periods of low sunspot activity, some parts of Europe and North America experienced lower-than-average temperatures.

BullSequana XH200 – National Supercomputing Mission | UPSC IAS

National Supercomputing Mission The Hindu PIB Gk today UPPSC SSC

National Supercomputing Mission The Hindu PIB Gk today UPPSC SSC

France-based company Atos signed agreement with Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) for designing, building and installing Bull Sequana – the supercomputer in India.

About BullSequana

  • Atos will supply Bull Sequana XH200 supercomputer to India to create a network of over 70 high-performance supercomputing facilities with a cumulative computing power of more than 10 petaflops, for various academic and research institutions across India.
  • BullSequana will be set up in India under the National Supercomputing Mission (NSM).

Challenges to Supercomputing in India:

  • Limited funding: Limited investments and delayed release of funds have held India back. Even after launching NSM, only 10 percent of its total budget has been released at the end of three years.
  • Hardware development: India’s stronghold is in software development, it has to depend on imports to procure the hardware components required for building supercomputers. Cutting edge technology in hardware components is difficult to procure as supercomputing is a niche field. Even a large part of Bull Sequana will only be assembled in India.
  • Brain Drain: Large Multinational Corporations (like Google) have also entered the supercomputing field. Competing with such MNCs to retain talent for developing and maintaining supercomputers proves difficult for Government.
  • Actual chip design and manufacturing is difficult to achieve (due to many factors like high initial investment needed, limited availability of rare earth metals).
  • However, India has software skills and personnel base which can be effectively leveraged to propel innovation on the software components of supercomputer technology. Also, Exascale system, which is now used in supercomputers, may reach its speed barrier soon. Thus, India could focus its research on new approaches like Quantum Computing and Optical Computing.

Some facts about supercomputing in the World

  • China is global leader in supercomputing with more than 225 out of top 500 supercomputers in world.
  • Currently India’s fastest and 39th fastest supercomputer in the world, Pratyush is installed in Pune’s Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology. It is used for simulating and predicting ocean and atmospheric systems.
  • India has become the only country worldwide to have an Ensemble Prediction System (EPS), running weather models at a 12-km resolution due to Pratyush.

What is  C-DAC ?

  • C-DAC was setup in 1988 under Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, for indigenous development of Supercomputers.
  • C-DAC developed India’s first supercomputer – Param 8000.
  • It was established after denial of import of Cray Supercomputer (dual use technology which could be used for nuclear weapon simulation), due to arms embargo.

About National Supercomputing Mission – National Supercomputing Mission was launched in 2015 with following objectives:

  • To make India one of the world leaders in Supercomputing capability.
  • To empower our scientists and researchers with state-of-the-art supercomputing facilities.
  • To minimize redundancies and duplication of efforts, and optimize investments in supercomputing
  • To attain global competitiveness and ensure self-reliance in supercomputing technology
  • It is spearheaded by Department of S&T and Department of Electronics and IT.

Under NSM, 70 supercomputers will be installed in India. These machines will be part of the National Supercomputing grid over the National Knowledge Network, aimed at establishing a strong network for secured & reliable connectivity between institutions.

National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems | UPSC – IAS

National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems UPSC - IAS The Hindu science and technology ias s&t

National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems UPSC - IAS The Hindu science and technology ias s&t

About National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (CSP)

  • It is a comprehensive mission which would address technology development, application development, human resource development, skill enhancement, entrepreneurship and start-up development in Cyber-Physical Systems and associated technologies.

Implementation | UPSC – IAS | PIB

  • It aims at establishment of 15 numbers of Technology Innovation Hubs, six numbers of Application Innovation Hubs and four numbers of Technology Translation Research Parks (TTRP).
  • These Hubs & TTRPs will connect to Academics, Industry, Central Ministries and State Government in developing solutions at reputed academic, R&D and other organizations across the country in a hub and spoke model.
  • They mainly focus on four areas:
    • Technology Development,
    • HRD & Skill Development,
    • Innovation,
    • Entrepreneurship & Start-ups Ecosystem Development and International Collaborations.

Significance of Mission | UPSC – IAS | PIB

  • It will support other missions of the government, provide industrial and economic competitiveness.
  • It would act as an engine of growth that would benefit national initiatives in health, education, energy, environment, agriculture, strategic cum security, and industrial sectors, Industry 4.0, SMART Cities, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) etc.
  • It will bring a paradigm shift in entire skill sets requirement and job opportunities.
  • It is aimed to give impetus to advanced research in Cyber-Physical Systems , technology development and higher education in science, technology and engineering disciplines, and place India at par with other advanced countries and derive several direct and indirect benefits.

Recently cabinet approved the launching of National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS) which is to be implemented by Department of Science &Technology for a period of five years.

What is Cyber-physical system (CPS) ? | UPSC – IAS | PIB

  • Cyber-Physical Systems is an interdisciplinary field that deals with the deployment of computer-based systems that do things in the physical world. It integrates sensing, computation, control and networking into physical objects and infrastructure, connecting them to the Internet and to each other.
  • Examples of cyber physical systems are Smart Grid Networks, Smart Transportation System, Enterprise Cloud Infrastructure, Utility Service Infrastructure for Smart Cities, etc.

Cyber-physical system and its associated technologies, like:-

  • Artificial Intelligence (Al),
  • Internet of Things (loT),
  • Machine Learning (ML),
  • Deep Learning (DP),
  • Big Data Analytics,
  • Robotics,
  • Quantum Computing,
  • Quantum Communication,
  • Quantum encryption (Quantum Key Distribution),
  • Data Science & Predictive analytics,
  • Cyber Security for physical infrastructure and

**Other infrastructure plays a transformative role in almost every field of human endeavor in all sectors.

Advantages of Cyber-physical system technologies | UPSC – IAS | PIB

  • Enhanced security capabilities: It can play role in expediting design and delivery of trustworthy, adaptable and affordable systems, operations in cyberspace and autonomous systems to augment security operations.
  • Disaster Management:  Cyber-Physical Systems technologies including next generation public safety communications, sensor networks, and response robotics can dramatically increase the situational awareness of emergency responders and enable optimized response through all phases of disaster events.
  • Energy: They are essential for the creation of energy infrastructure, optimization and management of resources and facilities and allowing consumers to control and manage their energy consumption patterns like smart meters.
  • Healthcare: Cyber-Physical Systems correct-by-construction design methodologies are needed to design cost-effective, easy-to-certify, and safe products.
  • Transportation: They can (potentially) eliminate accidents caused by human error, Congestion control, traffic-based grid jams.
  • Agriculture: They will play a key role in helping to increase efficiency throughout the value chain, improving environmental footprint and creating opportunities for a skilled and semi-skilled workforce.

Challenges in Cyber-physical system (CPS) | UPSC – IAS | PIB

  • Privacy issues:  Cyber-Physical Systems technologies that enhance privacy and enable the appropriate use of sensitive and personal information while protecting personal privacy are needed.
  • Computational Abstractions: Physical properties such as laws of physics and chemistry, safety, resources, real time power constrained etc. must be captured by programming abstractions.
  • Collaborations, Innovation and Entrepreneurship: Addressing the R&D gaps will require close collaborations between industry, R&D systems/Academics/ University and Government.
  • Data related challenges: It allows flexible control and resource use; provides conduits for information leakage; prone to mis-configurations and deliberate attacks by outsiders and insiders.
  • Infrastructural bottlenecks: This system requires a Sensor and mobile networks hence essential requirement to increase system autonomy in practice requires self-organization of mobile and Adhoc Cyber-Physical Systems networks.
  • Human Interaction: Human interaction with Cyber-Physical Systems often encounter a critical challenge when interpreting the human-machine behavior and designing appropriate models that consider the current situational measurements and environmental changes which are crucial in the decision-making processes, particularly in systems such as air traffic systems and military systems.
  • Technical barrier: One of the biggest problems that such integrations face is the lack of consistent language and terminology that need to exist to describe cyber-physical interactions.
  • Consistency: There are challenges in maintaining the same required level of accuracy, reliability, and performance of all system parts.

Cyber physical system (CPS) vs Internet of things (IoT)

Cyber Physical system (CPS)

  • They are physical and engineered systems whose operations are monitored, coordinated, controlled and integrated by a computing and communication core.
  • CPS engineering has a strong emphasis on the relationship between computation  and the physical world.
  • They are not necessarily connected with internet.
  • Ex: It may be individual system which integrates the physical and cyber technology like
    smart electricity meters.

Internet of things (IoT)

  • It is the network of devices such as vehicles, and home appliances that contain  electronics, software, actuators, and connectivity which allows these things to connect,  interact and exchange data.
  • IoT has a strong emphasis on uniquely identifiable and internet-connected
    devices and embedded systems.
  • They are connected to internet.
  • The Internet of Things (IoT) forms a foundation for this cyber- physical systems revolution.
  • Ex: Smart Home in which all appliances are connected to each other through internet like TV  is connected to mobile, lights are connected to mobile etc.

Rat Hole Mining – Meghalaya East Jaintia Hills | UPSC – IAS | Pib

Rat Hole Mining - Meghalaya East Jaintia Hills UPSC - IAS cherrapunji UPPCS UPPSC PIB the Hindu

Rat Hole Mining - Meghalaya East Jaintia Hills UPSC - IAS cherrapunji UPPCS UPPSC PIB the Hindu

What is Rat Hole Mining ?

Recently, the collapse of a coal mine in Meghalaya or cherrapunji East Jaintia Hills in which 15 workers were trapped, has thrown the spotlight on a procedure known as “rat-hole mining”.

About Rat-hole mining | UPSC – IAS | Pib

  • It involves digging of very small tunnels, usually only 3-4 feet high, without any pillars to prevent collapse, in which workers (often children) enter and extract coal.
  • The National Green Tribunal (NGT) banned it in 2014 on grounds of it being unscientific and unsafe for workers. However, the state government appealed the order in the Supreme Court.
  • Even after ban, it remains the prevalent procedure for coal mining in Meghalaya as no other method would be economically viable in Meghalaya or cherrapunji, where the coal seam is extremely thin.

Negative impacts of Rat Hole Mining | UPSC – IAS | Pib

  • Environmental Degradation: It has caused the water in the Kopili river (flows through Meghalaya and Assam) to turn acidic.
  • Pollution: Roadsides used for piling of coal leads to air, water and soil pollution.
  • Exploitation of workers: Maximum mining in Meghalaya is from rat hole mining where workers put their lives in danger but benefits are cornered by few private individuals.
  • Risk to Lives: Rat-holes mines without adequate safety measures pose high risk to miner’s lives. According to one estimate, one miner dies in these rat-holes mines every 10 days.
  • Fueling illegal activities: Illegal money earned from these unlawful mines also end up fueling insurgency in the state.
  • Encouraging Child Labor: According to a Shillong based NGO, rat-hole mining employs 70,000 child laborers.

Advantages of Rat-hole mining | UPSC – IAS | Pib

  • Less Capital Intensive: This type of mining when done in a scientific way, with suitable equipment is less capital intensive.
  • Less Polluting: Unlike big mine fields which leave the nearby area nearly uninhabitable, rat-hole mines are less polluting to soil, air and water.
  • Easy self-employment: rat-hole mining provides easy self-employment to people.

Why does it continue ? | UPSC – IAS | Pib

Political Influence: Maximum politicians are either owners of mines or have stakes in the largely unregulated coal mining and transportation industry.

  • Populism: Directly and indirectly about 2.5 lakh people are dependent on rat-hole mining economy, having influence on 16 out of 60 assembly seats.
  • Lack of alternative Employment opportunities: It forces people to work in these dangerous mines.
  • Lack of Adequate Policy: The NGT finds The Meghalaya  or cherrapunji  Mines and Mineral Policy, 2012 inadequate. The policy does not address rat-hole mining and instead states: “Small and traditional system of mining by local people in their own land shall not be unnecessarily disturbed”.
  • Use of Violence by Mining Mafia: Anyone who reports on these illegal mining activities is met with violence.
  • Legal Framework: Mining activities are a state subject, but safety of mine workers is a central subject which creates problems in implementation of safety policies.
  • Misuse of Sixth Schedule Provisions: The 6th Schedule of the Constitution intends to protect the community’s ownership over its land and the community’s autonomy and consent over its nature of use. Coal mining currently underway in Meghalaya was a corruption of this Constitutional Provision wherein private individuals having private interests in earning monetary benefits from minerals vested under the land are engaging in coal mining.
  • Lack of Monitoring: Mining activities are spread across too vast an area spreading over four districts.

Great Indian bustard (Ardeotis Nigriceps) – Population Fall | UPSC IAS

Great Indian bustard (Ardeotis Nigriceps) - Population Fall UPSC IAS

Great Indian bustard (Ardeotis Nigriceps) - Population Fall UPSC IAS

Great Indian bustard (Ardeotis Nigriceps) – Population Fall | UPSC – IAS

A recent study suggests that, Great Indian Bustard population has been falling continuously, from around 1,260 in 1969 to less than 200 in 2018.

About Great Indian bustard (Ardeotis Nigriceps)

  • It’s among the heaviest bird with a horizontal body and long bare legs giving it an ostrich like appearance.
  • Habitat: Arid and semi-arid grasslands, open country with thorn scrub, tall grass interspersed with cultivation. It avoids irrigated areas.
  • Currently, it is found in only six states in the country –
    • Madhya Pradesh,
    • Gujarat,
    • Maharashtra,
    • Andhra Pradesh,
    • Rajasthan and
    • Karnataka.
  • It is endemic to Indian Sub-continent, found in central India, western India and eastern Pakistan.
  • Protection: Listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List
  • It is also listed in Appendix I of CITES and covered under CMS or Bonn Convention.
  • Bustard Species Found In India: Great Indian Bustard, the Lesser Florican and the Bengal Florican; Houbara also belong to Bustard family but it’s a migratory species.
  • Importance to Ecosystem: GIB is an indicator species for grassland habitats and its gradual disappearance from such environments shows their deterioration.
  • Once the species is lost, there will be no other species to replace it, and that will destabilise the ecosystem of the grassland and affect critical bio-diversities, as well as blackbucks and wolves, who share their habitat with the GIB.
  • Threat: Hunting, poaching, habitat erosion, ‘greening’ projects that transform arid grasslands to wooded areas, change of land use from grassland to farmland, collisions with high tension electric wires, fast moving vehicles and free-ranging dogs in villages

Great Indian bustard (Ardeotis Nigriceps) - Population Fall | UPSC IAS PIB PCS UPPCS UPPSC the Hindu

Conservation Steps:

Great Indian Bustard, popularly known as ‘Godawan’, is Rajasthan’s state bird. The state government has started “Project Godawan” for its conservation at Desert National Park (DNP) in Jaisalmer. It’s one of the Species for The Recovery Programme under the Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats of the Ministry of Environment and Forests.

Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats | UPSC – IAS

It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme where GoI provides financial and technical assistance to the State/UT Governments for activities aimed at wildlife conservation. The scheme has three components viz- Support to Protected Areas (National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves), Protection of Wildlife Outside Protected Area and Recovery programmes for saving critically endangered species and habitats.

Great Indian bustard (Ardeotis Nigriceps) Recovery Programme

  • It recommends linking local livelihoods with bustard conservation
  • A profitable and equitable mechanism to share revenues generated from ecotourism with local communities should be developed
  • For effective conservation, the guidelines direct state governments to identify the core breeding areas for bustards and keep them inviolate from human disturbances
  • The guidelines suggest restriction on infrastructure development and land use diversion for roads, high tension electric poles, intensive agriculture, wind power generators and construction
  • Only low intensity, traditional pastoral activities should be allowed, that too, not during the breeding season, say the guidelines

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) or Bonn convention

  • It is the only convention under UNEP which provides a global platform for the conservation and sustainable use of migratory animals and their habitats ( and their migration routes). India is a member of the convention.
  • Migratory species threatened with extinction are listed on Appendix I of the Convention.

Wildlife Protection Tiger Conservation Project – Analysis | UPSC IAS

Wildlife Protection Tiger Conservation Project - Analysis UPSC IAS UPPCS SSC THe hindu PIB

tiger reserves in india Map location state wise UPSC IAS PIB PCS UPPCS UPPSC

Recently a new study by World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) found that under optimal conditions, tiger numbers can triple in 18 sites across the world, including eight in India.

  • Another study by researchers has found Royal Bengal Tiger in the snow-capped regions of the Eastern Himalaya at an altitude of more than 4,000m in Dibang valley of Arunachal Pradesh.
    More on News
  • This new assessment could guide planning for tiger recovery globally and help inform more effective, integrated approaches to tiger conservation.
  • The presence of the big cats in Dibang valley which is not even a tiger reserve is a tribute to the ways the people there have been coexisting with the animals.
    Threats to Tiger Population in India

Important Facts Wildlife Protection Tiger Conservation Project  | UPSC – IAS | PCS | PIB

  • Indian Tiger or Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris) is the sub species found in India.
  • Conservation status of Tiger
    • IUCN Red List: Endangered
    • Wild life protection Act : Schedule 1
    • CITES: Appendix 1
  • The tiger reserves are constituted on a core/buffer strategy. The core areas have the legal status of a national park or a sanctuary. The buffer or peripheral areas are a mix of forest and non-forest land, managed as a multiple use area.
  • India is home to 70 per cent of global tiger population.
  • The tigers are an “umbrella” species as by rescuing them, we save everything beneath their ecological umbrella – everything connected to them.
  • Highest number of tigers are in Karnataka followed by Uttarakhand

Habitat loss | UPSC – IAS | PCS | PIB

  • Industrial Development has led to increased pressure on their natural habitat due to increased deforestation.
  • Forest fires and floods leading to habitat loss also continue to pose a threat to their survival.
  • National Highways often run through the tiger reserves which in turn lead to habitat fragmentation.
  • Poaching: Tigers have been illegally hunted due to their demand in traditional Chinese medicines, decorative works, etc.
  • Man-Animal conflict: Growing incidents of human–tiger conflict protected also pose significant challenge.
  • Inbreeding of the tiger species is also a major concern as inbred animals are prone to acquiring crippling defects, lack of capacity to adapt and psychological issues.

Conservation Efforts in India | UPSC – IAS | PCS | PIB

  • Project Tiger: The Government of India launched the centrally Sponsored Scheme the ‘Project Tiger’ in 1973 for for in-situ conservation of wild tigers in designated tiger reserves. The Project Tiger coverage has increased to 50 tiger reserves at present.
  • The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA): It is a statutory body established in 2006 under MoEFCC performing functions as provided in the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Presently It implements major tiger conservation initiatives like project tiger, Tiger conservation plan etc.
  • Monitoring System for Tigers – Intensive Protection and Ecological Status (M-STrIPES): It is a software-based monitoring system launched across Indian tiger reserves by the NTCA.
    Global Conservation Efforts
  • The Global Tiger Initiative (GTI): It was launched in 2008 as a global alliance of governments, international organizations, civil society, the conservation and scientific communities and the private sector and includes organization like the World Bank, the Global Environment Facility (GEF), etc. It aims to work together to save wild tigers from extinction. In 2013, the scope was broadened to include Snow Leopards. The initiative is led by the 13 tiger range countries (Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand, and Vietnam).
  • The Global Tiger Forum (GTF) is the only inter- governmental international body established with members from willing countries to embark on a global campaign to protect the Tiger.
  • TX2: In 2010, the St. Petersburg Declaration on Tiger Conservation was adopted under the GTI and the Global Tiger Recovery Programme or TX2 was endorsed. Its goal was to double the number of wild tigers across their geographical areas. The WWF is implementing the programme in 13 tiger range countries.
  • Conservation Assured Tiger Standards CA|TS: It is a new tool for tiger conservation management. It is a set of criteria which allows tiger sites to check if their management will lead to successful tiger conservation. It is an important part of Tx2 programme.

Way Forward | UPSC – IAS | PCS | PIB

  • Awareness: Awareness about tiger conservation through discussions, exhibitions and local campaigns, etc should be spread.
  • Strengthening monitoring activities by authorities is a crucial element in tiger conservation. Improving the intelligence and information sharing mechanism is a major aspect in this regard. Drones can also be widely used for monitoring.
  • Stopping Illegal trade: Items prepared from tiger killed must be tackled as it effectively fuels the poaching process.
  • Involving Local communities: Peaceful coexistence with voluntarily participation of the local communities is a must. For example villagers must be instantaneously compensated for their cattle loss or crop damage due to tiger and other wildlife activities.
  • Relocation of tigers: It should be done in a well-planned manner else there is a high chance of losing the animal. This can also help to prevent inbreeding of the tiger species and thus increase the viability of the tiger population.

Seabed 2030 Project – Bathymetric data map of Ocean Floor | UPSC – IAS

Seabed 2030 Project - Bathymetric data map of Ocean Floor UPSC - IAS PCS PIB the HIndu UPPCS UPPSC BPSC

Seabed 2030 Project - Bathymetric data map of Ocean Floor UPSC - IAS PCS PIB the HIndu UPPCS UPPSC BPSC

Seabed 2030 Project – Bathymetric data map of Ocean Floor | UPSC – IAS

The U.N.-backed project Seabed 2030 is pooling data from the countries and companies to create a map of the entire ocean floor.

About Seabed 2030 Project | UPSC – IAS

  • It aims to bring together all available bathymetric data (measures of depth and shape of the seafloor) to
    produce the definitive map of the world ocean floor by 2030 and make it available to all.
  • It is a collaborative project between the Nippon Foundation and General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO).
  • The project was launched at the United Nations (UN) Ocean Conference in June 2017 and is aligned with the UN’s Sustainable Development Goal #14 to conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources.
  • Central to the Seabed 2030 strategy is the creation of Regional Data Assembly and Coordination Centres (RDACCs), with each having a defined ocean region of responsibility. A board will be established for each region consisting of local experts to identify existing bathymetric data, and to help coordinate new bathymetric surveys.

Significance Seabed Mapping Project | UPSC – IAS

  • Bathymetric data from the deep ocean is critical for studying marine geology and geophysics. For example, Bathymetric data obtained in 1950s and ‘60s led to modern understanding of Plate tectonics.
  • The shape of the seabed is a crucial parameter for understanding ocean circulation patterns as well as an important variable for accurately forecasting tsunami wave propagation.
  • Bathymetric data illuminates the study of tides, wave action, sediment transport, underwater geo—hazards, cable routing, resource exploration, extension of continental shelf (UN Law of the Sea treaty issues), military and defence applications.
  • In coastal regions, bathymetry underpins marine and maritime spatial planning and decision-making, navigation safety, and provides a scientific basis for models of storm surges, while also informing our understanding of marine ecosystems and habitats.
  • Detailed knowledge of bathymetry is a fundamental prerequisite for attaining an improved understanding of the subsea processes.

Challenges | UPSC – IAS

  • Even using the RDACC model, the goal of mapping the entire world ocean is a significant challenge, and can only be accomplished if new field mapping projects are initiated.
  • Crowdsourcing bathymetric data from fishing vessels and recreational small boats etc. represents one approach for gathering information in shallower water regions, but is less efficient in deeper waters due to depth limitations of standard echo sounders.
  • Deep water mapping remains a major challenge due to the cost involved and the limited number of available research vessels that are equipped with modern deep, water multibeam sonars.

A Way forward | UPSC – IAS

  • Reach out to the national and international funding agencies, to get adequate funding to support Seabed 2030 vision.
  • Keeping up with technology overtime to make sure that processes, products and services are forward looking and well-positioned to make use of new technologies as they become available.
  • Given the sheer size of the ocean the Seabed 2030 goals can only be achieved through international coordination and collaboration with respect to data acquisition, assimilation and compilation.

Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ), 2018 – An Analysis | UPSC – IAS

Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ), 2018 - An Analysis UPSC - IAS

 

Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ), 2018 - An Analysis UPSC - IAS

Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ), 2018 – An Analysis | UPSC – IAS

To conserve and protect the coastal environment, and to promote sustainable development based on scientific principles Ministry of Environment and Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, notified the CRZ Notification in 1991, subsequently revised in 2011. CRZ helps in reducing the ecological vulnerability through regulated activities in ecologically most sensitive areas (CRZ-I A):-

  • Regulate activities such as Eco-tourism subject to approved Coastal Zone Management Plans(CZMPs), exceptional construction of public utilities in the mangrove buffer etc.
  • Construction of roads and roads on stilts, by way of reclamation shall be permitted only in exceptional cases for defence, strategic purposes and public utilities, subject to a detailed marine/terrestrial environment impact assessment, to be recommended by the Coastal Zone Management Authority and approved by the MoEFCC.
  • Compensatory plantation of mangroves (Minimum three times the mangrove area affected/destroyed/ cut).

Areas requiring special consideration in the CRZ

  • Critically Vulnerable Coastal Areas (CVCA): Sunderban region of West Bengal and other ecologically sensitive areas identified as under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 such as Gulf of Khambat and Gulf of Kutchchh in Gujarat, Malvan, Achra-Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, Karwar and Coondapur in Karnataka, Vembanad in Kerala, Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu, Bhaitarkanika in Odisha, Coringa, East Godavari and Krishna in Andhra Pradesh shall be treated as CVCA and managed with the involvement of coastal communities including fisher folk who depend on coastal resources for their sustainable livelihood.
  • CRZ for inland Backwater islands and islands along the mainland coast.
  • CRZ falling within municipal limits of Greater Mumbai.

Salient Features of Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ), 2018 Notification

  • Easing FSI norms: This notification de-freezes the restrictions imposed on Floor Space Index (FSI) or the Floor Area Ratio (FAR) under CRZ, 2011 in accordance to 1991 Development Control Regulation (DCR) levels.
  • No development zone (NDZ) reduced for densely populated areas: For CRZ-III areas
    • CRZ-III A areas shall have a NDZ of 50 meters from the HTL on the landward side as against 200 meters from the HTL stipulated in the CRZ Notification, 2011.
    • CRZ-III B areas shall continue to have an NDZ of 200 meters from the HTL.
  • Tourism infrastructure for basic amenities to be promoted: The notification allows for temporary tourism facilities such as shacks, toilet blocks, change rooms, drinking water facilities etc on beaches at a minimum distance of 10 metres from HTL. Such temporary tourism facilities are also now permissible in the NDZ of the CRZ-III areas.
  • CRZ Clearances streamlined:
    • CRZ clearances are needed only for projects located in CRZ-I and CRZ IV.
    • States to have the powers for clearances w.r.t CRZ-II and III with necessary guidance
  • No development zone (NDZ of 20 meters has been stipulated for all Islands: in the wake of space limitations and unique geography and to bring uniformity in treatment of such regions.
  • All Ecologically Sensitive Areas have been accorded special importance: Through Specific guidelines related to their conservation and management plans.
  • Pollution abatement has been accorded special focus: By permitting construction of treatment facilities in CRZ-I B area subject to necessary safeguards.
  • Defence and strategic projects have been accorded necessary dispensation.

Benefits of Coastal Regulation Zone | UPSC – IAS

  • Enhanced activities in the coastal regions thereby promoting economic growth while also respecting the conservation principles of coastal regions.
    • o Boost tourism in terms of more activities, more infrastructure and more opportunities in creating employment opportunities.
    • o greater opportunities for development of densely populated rural areas in the CRZs.
  • CRZ, 2018 is also in sync with the thrust being given to port-led industrialisation and the Coastal Economic Zones projects.
  • Additional opportunities for affordable housing which will benefit not only the housing sector but the people at large looking for shelter.
  • It is expected to rejuvenate the coastal areas while reducing their vulnerabilities.

Concerns Over Coastal Regulation Zone | UPSC – IAS 

The new notification has done away with or diluted many stringent restrictions in place at coastal areas. The emphasis of the new CRZ norms is on promotion of tourism facilities, quicker dispensation of defence and strategic projects and liberal licensing for the installation of treatment plants.

  • Eco–sensitive regions could see flurry of construction activity thereby hampering the coastal ecosystem and biodiversity.
  • The notification violates the balance between ecosystem and development. The mandatory 50 m buffer zone for mangrove forest in private land with an expanse of more than 1,000 sq m has been done away with.
  • The fishermen are worried that the entry of the tourism sector will attract the real estate lobbies, who will eventually displace the coastal community and deny them the access to the seas.
  • Further, the reduction of NDZ is done without taking consideration of sea level rise. The coastline is already vulnerable due to erosion, fresh water crisis and loss of livelihoods. The new changes will only increase this vulnerability and promote commercialisation of the coast.
  • The Hazard Line, mapped by the Survey of India has, however, been de-linked from the CRZ regulatory regime and will be used only as a tool for disaster management and planning of adaptive and mitigation measures.
  • The treatment facilities, allowed in CRZ-I to reduce coastal pollution, means several ecologically fragile areas will have sewage treatment plants transferring pollution from land to sea.

The notification permits activities like reclamation of land for commercial activities, interference with sand dunes, large scale recreation and drawing of groundwater within the 200-500 metres from the HTL, which is
detrimental to the coastal ecology and that will displace the local communities and affect the biodiversity.

Conclusion | UPSC – IAS

The sustainable management depends on the nature of the social system, comprising political, economic and industrial infrastructure and its linkages, with the knowledge about coastal systems as well as local communities. India need to move from a purely regulatory approach towards an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM).

Key terms Explanation – ICZM

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM): This concept was born in 1992 during the Earth Summit of Rio de Janeiro. This was a World Bank assisted project with the objective of building national capacity for implementation of comprehensive coastal management approach in the country, and piloting the integrated coastal zone management approach in states of Gujarat, Orissa and West Bengal.

  • The project’s multi-sectoral and integrated approach represents a paradigm shift from the traditional sector-wise management of coastal resources where numerous institutional, legal, economic and planning frameworks worked in isolation, at times with conflicting aims and outputs.
  • The project puts equal emphasis on conservation of coastal and marine resources, pollution management, and improving livelihood

Climate Change COP24 – Katowice, Poland -An Analysis | UPSC IAS PCS

Climate Change (COP 24) - Katowice, Poland -An Analysis UPSC IAS PCS UPPCS SSC

Climate Change (COP 24) - Katowice, Poland -An Analysis UPSC IAS PCS UPPCS SSC

The 24th Session of the of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change COP24 was held in Katowice, Poland.

Agenda of COP24: The conference focused on three key issues:-

  • Finalization of guidelines/ modalities/rules for the implementation of Paris Agreement.
  • Conclusion of 2018 Facilitative Talanoa Dialogue (to help countries implement NDC by 2020)
  • The stocktake of Pre-2020 actions implementation and ambition

Key outcomes in Katowice | UPSC IAS PCS PIB

Accounting Guidance Rules to guide the countries for their Climate pledges (“nationally determined contributions”, NDCs), will make it easier to compare pledges and to add them up as a global aggregate.

  • All countries “shall” use the latest emissions accounting guidance from the IPCC, last updated in 2006, but now in the process of being reformed next year.
  • Market mechanisms: This provides for the trading of carbon credits i.e. overachievement of NDCs (cooperative approaches and internationally transferred mitigation outcomes (ITMOs)), as well as individual projects generating carbon credits for sale. Following is the status on this front:
    • Accounting Rules to prevent “double counting” of emissions reductions by the buyer and seller of offsets could not be finalised.
    • The schemes and methodologies for the implementation of Sustainable Development Mechanism- SDM would be discussed in COP25. The SDM is intended to replace the Kyoto Protocol’s “Clean Development Mechanism” (CDM) for carbon offsets. o Overall Mitigation in Global Emissions (OMGE): It is a central and critical new element under the Paris Agreement, that takes carbon markets beyond the offsetting approaches of the existing markets like the CDM.
    • The primary purpose of OMGE is to deliver on cost-effectively reducing greenhouse gas emissions, rather than creating carbon markets for their own sake.
  • Small island countries wanted a mandatory automatic cancellation or discounting for an OMGE applied to all the activities under market mechanism. However this option was removed from the COP decision and made voluntary.
  • Climate finance reporting: Developed country Parties shall biennially communicate indicative quantitative and qualitative information on programmes, including projected levels, channels and instruments, as available public financial resources to be provided to developing country Parties. Other Parties providing resources are encouraged to communicate biennially such information on a voluntary basis.
    • The UNFCCC secretariat to establish a dedicated online portal for posting and recording the biennial communications.
  • Global stocktake: Paris Agreement requires the CMA (Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement) to periodically take stock of the implementation of the Paris Agreement and to assess collective progress towards achieving the purpose of the Agreement and its long-term goals. This process is called the global stocktake.
    • The rules set the structure for the stocktake process, which is to be divided into three stages: Information collection, technical assessment and consideration of outputs.
  • Transparency: The purpose of the transparency framework is to provide a clear understanding of climate change action in the light of the objective of the Paris Convention. This includes clarity and tracking of progress towards achieving Parties’ individual NDCs, and Parties’ adaptation actions, including good practices and gaps, to inform the global stocktake.
  • Moreover, it provides clarity on support provided and received by relevant individual Parties in the context of climate change actions, and, to the extent possible, to provide a full overview of aggregate financial support provided, to inform the global stocktake.
    • The final rulebook applies a single set of rules to all countries, however with flexibility for “those developing country parties that need it in the light of their capacities”, reflecting CBDR-RC principle.
  • Loss and damage: Loss and damage caused by the unavoidable impacts of climate change was a touchstone issue for vulnerable countries, such as small island developing states. The rulebook mentions this issue, however, in a diluted version.
    • The global stocktake rules do add loss and damage clause. The stocktake rules now say it “may take into account, as appropriate, efforts to avert, minimise and address loss and damage associated with the adverse effects of climate change”.
    • The transparency rules also say countries “may, as appropriate” report on loss and damage.
  • Other matters: Rules were finalised in a number of other areas, including how compliance with the Paris Agreement is to be monitored.
    • COP24 agreed to set up an expert compliance committee that is “facilitative in nature, non-adversarial and non-punitive”. It will not impose penalties or sanctions. The committee will be able to investigate countries that fail to submit climate pledges.
    • COP decided that the “adaptation fund” – a financial mechanism set up under the Kyoto Protocol – should continue under the Paris Agreement.
  • Talanoa Dialogue: The final text simply “invited” countries to “consider” the outcomes of the Talanoa dialogue in preparing their NDCs and in efforts to enhance pre-2020 ambition.
    • The text also “welcomes” the 2018 stocktake on pre-2020 implementation and ambition, and reiterates its decision to convene another stocktake next year.
    • Pre-2020: With respect to the “pre-2020” commitments –first agreed by developed countries in 2010 in Cancun – the COP called for developed countries to ratify the Doha Amendment so that it can enter into force. This would extend the Kyoto Protocol on developed country emissions till 2020.
    • The COP also “strongly urges” developed countries to increase their financial support in line with the promise to jointly mobilise $100bn per year in climate finance to poorer countries by 2020. It acknowledges that “the provision of urgent and adequate finance” will help developing countries in order to up their own pre-2020 action.
    • ‘Welcoming’ the IPCC 1.5°C report: Despite the majority of countries speaking in favour of the report, four countries – the US, Saudi Arabia, Russia and Kuwait – refused to “welcome” the report. The COP welcome its “timely completion” and “invited” countries to make use of the report in subsequent discussions at the UNFCCC.

Analysis of the outcomes | UPSC IAS PCS PIB

  • Provision of finance by developed countries: Rules on financial contributions by developed countries have been diluted making it very difficult to hold them accountable.
    • Now, developed countries have the choice to include all kinds of financial instruments, concessional and non-concessional loans, grants, aids etc, from various public and private sources, to meet their commitments.
    • The rules on ex-ante (forecasted) financial reporting and its review for adequacy has been significantly weakened.
    • Developed countries now have the freedom to decide the amount and the kind of financial resources they want to give to the developing countries and do this without any strong mechanism of accountability.
  • Loss and damage: The Warsaw International Mechanism, which has to deal with averting, minimizing and addressing loss and damage associated with the adverse effects of climate change, has no financial resources to support vulnerable countries. With no financial provisions, the countries are now left on their own to address the impacts of climate change.
  • Global stocktake (GST):
    • The non- Policy prescriptive rulebook for GST ensures that the process will neither give any recommendation to individual countries or a group of countries, nor will it give any prescriptive policy to everyone. This would result in collection of a lot of technical information without any clear recommendation to increase ambition on mitigation or finance.
    • Also, equity has been mentioned in the text, but there is no mechanism to operationalize it.
  • Carbon market Mechanism:
    • There has virtually been no progress made on non-market mechanisms (sub-article 6.8 of Paris Agreement) to reduce emissions and enhance sinks in forests and land.
    • There is no firm decision on OMGE mechanism. Also, the rulebook has different rules for different markets, which is non-transparent and makes emissions reductions unverifiable. Trading is allowed for sectors which are not covered in a country’s emissions targets, which will dilute the overall mitigation effect.
    • Countries are on their own: The Paris Agreement had both bottom-up and top-down elements. Most of the top-down elements have been diluted in the rulebook. The Paris Agreement and its rulebook is now a totally ‘self-determined’ process. Countries are now on their own to mitigate, to adapt, and to pay the cost of climate impacts.

Reservation in India Advantages and Disadvantages | UPSC – IAS

Reservation in India Advantages and Disadvantages | UPSC IAS PCS

Reservation in India Advantages and Disadvantages | UPSC IAS PCS

Reservation in India Advantages and Disadvantages

The system of reservation in India consists of a series of measures, such as reserving access to seats in the various legislatures, to government jobs, and to enrollment in higher educational institutions. The reservation nourishes the historically disadvantaged castes and tribes, listed as Scheduled Castes and Scheduled tribes (SCs and STs) by the Government of India, also those designated as Other Backwards Classes (OBCs) and also the economically backward general. The reservation is undertaken to address the historic oppression, inequality, and discrimination faced by those communities and to give these communities a place. It is intended to realise the promise of equality enshrined in the Constitution.

 Achievements of Reservation Policy (Advantages ) | UPSC IAS | PCS

  • Reservations are a political necessity in India, for giving due representation to all  sections.
  • Although Reservation schemes do undermine the quality of education but still  Affirmative Action has helped many if not everyone from under-privileged and/or  under-represented communities to grow and occupy top positions in the world’s leading  industries.
  • Reservation schemes are needed to provide social justice to the most marginalized and  underprivileged which is their human right.
  • Meritocracy is meaningless without equality. First all people must be brought to  the same level, whether it elevates a section or decelerates another, regardless of merit.
  • Reservations have only slowed down the process of “Forward becoming richer and backward  becoming poorer”.

Negative fallouts of Reservation Policy (Disadvantages) | UPSC IAS | PCS

  • Reservation is similar to internal partition because in addition to being a form of ethnic  discrimination, it also builds walls against inter-caste and inter-faith marriages.
  • Reservations are the biggest enemy of meritocracy. By offering reservation through  relaxed entry criteria, we are fuelling inflation of moderate credentials as opposed to the  promotion of merit based education system, which is the foundation of many progressive countries. Meritocracy should not be polluted by injecting relaxation of entry barriers,  rather should be encouraged by offering financial aids to the underprivileged although  deserving candidates only. Today the IITs and IIMs hold a high esteem in the global scenario due to  their conservation of merit.
  • Caste Based Reservation only perpetuates the notion of caste in society, rather than  weakening it as a factor of social consideration, as envisaged by the constitution.  Reservation is a tool to meet narrow political ends, by invoking class loyalties and  primordial identities.
  • Affirmative Action can be provided at a more comprehensive level taking into account various  factors of exclusion such as caste, economic conditions, gender, kind of schooling received etc. A  comprehensive scheme of Affirmative Action would be more beneficial than reservations in  addressing concerns of social justice.
  • The benefits of reservation policy have largely been appropriated by the dominant  class within the backward castes, thereby the most marginalised within the  backward castes have remained marginalised. It has been observed that mostly the beneficiaries of reservation have been the children of the highest paid professionals and high rank  public officials.
  • Poor people from “forward castes” do not have any social or economic advantage over rich people from backward caste. In such a case, discriminating against the “forward caste” goes counter to the logic of reservation. It would create another “backward class” some years down the line. This ‘perceived’ injustice breads frustration and apathy in the society. The recent protests demanding quotas by some of the forward castes, in Gujarat and Rajasthan, is the testimony to this fact. For example, in Tamil Nadu, forward castes were able to secure only 3% of total seats (and 9% in Open Competition) in professional institutions at Undergraduate level as against their population percentage of 13%. This is a clear case of reverse discrimination.

Conclusion and Analysis Reservation policy in India  | UPSC IAS | PCS

  • The issue of reservation has remained a cause of disagreement between the reserved and the non- reserved sections of the society. While the unreserved segments, keep on opposing the provision, the neediest sections from within the reserved segments are hardly aware about how to get benefited from the provision or even whether there are such provisions.
  • On the contrary, the creamy layer among the same segment is enjoying special privileges in the name of reservation and political factions are supporting them for vote banks.
  • Reservation is no doubt good, as far as it is a method of appropriate positive discrimination for the benefit of the downtrodden and economically backward Sections of the society but when it tends to harm the society and ensures privileges for some at the cost of others for narrow political ends, as it is in the present form, it should be done away with, as soon possible.
  • It is time we address the challenge of reservations honestly, openly, fairly and innovatively. We cannot bury our heads in the sand forever like an ostrich.

Brief Summary | UPSC – IAS

The Reservation Policy in India has both positive and negative implications. While it provides representation for underprivileged communities, it has led to a political division and hindered social progress. The policy’s benefits have often been exploited by the affluent within backward castes, leaving the most marginalized still marginalized. This has sparked protests and debates, questioning the policy’s fairness. Despite its noble intent, the system’s implementation lacks transparency and effectiveness, serving as a tool for political gains. It’s essential to reevaluate the Reservation Policy, ensuring it remains a genuine mechanism for uplifting the disadvantaged, rather than perpetuating division and injustice.

Multiple Choice Questions | UPSC – IAS

1. What is the primary purpose of the Reservation Policy in India?
a) To create divisions among different sections
b) To promote inter-caste and inter-faith marriages
c) To provide equal representation to all sections
d) To hinder the growth of underprivileged communities

Explanation: The primary purpose of the Reservation Policy is to provide equal representation to all sections of society.

2. How does the Reservation Policy impact meritocracy?
a) It encourages merit-based education
b) It supports the principles of meritocracy
c) It hinders the growth of moderate credentials
d) It promotes the selection of deserving candidates only

Explanation: The Reservation Policy has been criticized for hindering the growth of moderate credentials, which can affect the principle of meritocracy.

3. According to the information provided, what is one of the negative consequences of Caste Based Reservation?
a) Weakening of caste-based considerations
b) Promotion of equality among different castes
c) Reinforcement of caste divisions in society
d) Elimination of social injustices

Explanation: Caste Based Reservation perpetuates the notion of caste in society, reinforcing its divisions rather than weakening them.

4. How has the Reservation Policy impacted marginalized communities within the backward castes?
a) It has uplifted the most marginalized individuals
b) It has failed to benefit the most marginalized within the backward castes
c) It has eradicated caste-based discrimination completely
d) It has improved the economic conditions of all backward castes equally

Explanation: The most marginalized within the backward castes have often not received the full benefits of the Reservation Policy, as it has been appropriated by the dominant class within these castes.

5. What social issue has arisen due to the Reservation Policy, according to the information provided?
a) Increased cooperation among different sections
b) Enhanced social justice for all communities
c) Frustration and apathy among the forward castes
d) Elimination of backward classes from society

Explanation: The Reservation Policy has led to frustration and apathy among some forward castes, leading to protests demanding quotas, as described in the information.

Reservation in India and its constitutional Provisions | UPSC IAS | PCS

Reservation in India and its constitutional Provisions UPSC IAS PCS Gk today the hindu

Reservation in India and its constitutional Provisions UPSC IAS PCS Gk today the hindu

Reservation in India and its constitutional Provisions | UPSC IAS | PCS

Reservation in Indian | Introduction

Reservation in Indian law is a form of affirmative action whereby a percentage of seats are reserved in the public sector units, union and state civil services, union and state government departments and in all public and private educational institutions, except in the religious/ linguistic minority educational institutions, for the socially and educationally backward communities and the Scheduled Castes and Tribes who are inadequately represented in these services and institutions.

  • The reservation policy is also extended for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes for representation in the Parliament of India.

Reservation in India & its Constitutional Provisions | UPSC IAS | PCS

The exact necessities for the reservation in services in favour of the members of the SC/STs have been made in the Constitution of India. They are as follows:

  • Article 15(4) and 16(4) of the Constitution enabled both the state and Central Governments to reserve seats in public services for the members of the SC and ST, thereby, enshrining impartiality of opportunity in matters of civic service.
  • Article 16(4 A): it makes provisions for reservation in the matter of promotion to any class or classes of posts in the services under the State in favour of SCs and STs (Constitutional 77th Amendment, – Act, 1995).
  • Article 16 (4 B): It enables the state to fill the unfilled vacancies of a year which are reserved for SCs/STs in the succeeding year, thereby nullifying the ceiling of fifty percent reservation on total number of vacancies of that year (Constitutional 81st Amendment, – Act, 2000).
  • Article 330 and 332: It provides for specific representation through reservation of seats for the SCs and the STs in the Parliament (Article 330) and in the State Legislative Assemblies (Article 332), as well as, in Government and public sector jobs, in both the federal and state Governments (Articles 16(4), 330(4) and 335).

Rationale Behind giving reservation  | UPSC IAS | PCS

  • The underlying theory for the provision of reservation by the state is the under-representation of the identifiable groups as a legacy of the Indian caste system. After India gained independence, the Constitution of India listed some erstwhile groups as Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST).
  • The framers of the Constitution believed that, due to the caste system, SCs and the STs were historically
    oppressed and denied respect and equal opportunity in Indian society and were thus under-represented in nation-building activities.

Present Status of reservation policy in India and facts about reservation system in india

After introducing the provision for reservation once, it got related to vote bank politics and the following governments and the Indian Parliament routinely extended this period, without any free and fair revisions. Later, reservations were introduced for other sections as well.

  • The Supreme Court ruling that reservations cannot exceed 50% (which it judged would violate equal access guaranteed by the Constitution) has put a cap on reservations. The central government of India reserves 27% of higher education for Other Backward Castes, and individual states may legislate further reservations.
  • Reservation in most states is at 50%, but certain Indian states like Rajasthan have proposed a 68% reservation that includes a 14% reservation for forward castes in services and education.
  • However, there are states laws that exceed this 50% limit and these are under litigation in the Supreme Court.For example, the caste-based reservation fraction stands at 69% and is applicable to about 87% of the population in the state of Tamil Nadu.

Conclusion and Suggestion and A way Forward  | UPSC IAS | PCS

  • De-reservation Policy: While caste may continue to be the mainstay of reservation policies, the benefits should flow to the vast majority of underprivileged children from deprived castes; not to a few privileged children with a caste tag. Families of public officials of a certain rank certain high income professionals and others above a certain income should be de-reserved. In other words, once they have received a significant advantage of reservations, they should be able to ensure opportunities for their children and vacate the space for the truly disadvantaged children in their own caste groups.
  • Affirmative steps: We have to address the anger and aspirations of poor families among unreserved communities. With the Supreme Court ruling of 50 per cent ceiling on reservation quotas, no further reservation is possible. But intelligent, creative, fair and practical ways of giving the poorer children among OBCs a helping hand are possible and necessary. For instance, parental education and the school the child attended, are two sure indicators of poverty and the backwardness of a family. If parents have not had education beyond school, and if the child goes to a government school or a low-end, ramshackle private school, it is a sure sign of a lack of adequate opportunity.
  • Make education mandatory and free for all till age of 17
  • Instead of introducing reservations for these backward classes what is required is to bring about revolutionary changes in our education system at the grass-root level. When proper education is not provided to children belonging to such categories during the primary stage itself then on what basis are the reservations provided at a subsequent stage.
  • Reservations on the basis of caste and not on the basis of other conditions are unacceptable. Fair and just reservations to uplift the people with poor conditions of life, those who don’t have meals to eat, clothes to wear and no home to live in. They shall be made on the basis of factors such as gender as women are more disadvantaged than men since primitive times, domicile, family education, family employment, family property, family income and if any disabilities and traumas. The process of reservation should be such that it filters the truly economically deprived individuals and bring them all to justice

Higher Education in India & UGC | Everything You Need to Know UPSC IAS

Higher Education in India & UGC Everything You Need to Know UPSC IAS

Higher Education in India & UGC Everything You Need to Know UPSC IAS

Higher Education in India & UGC | UPSC – IAS

University Grants Commission (UGC) was established in 1946 regulate Central Universities of Aligarh, Banaras and, Delhi. However, post-independence, the University Education Commission was set up in 1948 under the Chairmanship of S. Radhakrishnan and it recommended that the UGC be reconstituted on the general model of the UGC of UK. It was given a statutory status by UGC Act, 1956 and has the unique distinction of being the only grant-giving agency in the country which has been vested with two responsibilities:-

  • That of providing funds and that of coordination,
  • Determination and maintenance of standards in institutions of higher education.

What is UGC’s mandate ? | UPSC – IAS

  • Promoting and coordinating university education both public and private universities  including deemed universities and affiliated colleges.
  • Determining and maintaining standards of teaching, examination and research in universities.
  • Framing regulations on minimum standards of education.
  • Monitoring developments in the field of collegiate and university education;  disbursing grants to the universities and colleges.
  • Serving as a vital link between the Union and State governments and institutions of higher  learning.
  • Advising the Central and State governments on the measures necessary for  improvement of university education.
  • Enforcing regulations and punishing for violations.
  • Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by autonomous institutions established  by the UGC. These institutions include: AICTE (All India Council for Technical  Education), NAAC (National Assessment and Accreditation Council), MCI (Medical Council of  India) etc.

Evaluation of UGC’s performance | UPSC – IAS

General Performance of Higher Education Institutes:

  • Some institutions of India, such as the IITs, IIMs, NIITs, University of Mumbai  and Jawaharlal Nehru University have been globally acclaimed for their standard of education.
  • The IITs enroll about 10000 students annually and the alumni have contributed to both the  growth of the private sector and the public sectors of India.
  • Several other institutes of fundamental research such as IACS, IISc, TIFR, are acclaimed for  their standard of research in basic sciences and mathematics.
  • Mumbai University was ranked 41 among the Top 50 Engineering Schools of the world 2012. ISB,  Hyderabad was ranked number 12 in global MBA rankings in 2010 while the AIIMS, Delhi  has been recognized as a global leader in medical research and treatment.
  • Government universities through affirmative action like reservations has been able  to cater to the most backward and deprived sections of the population.
  • Foreign universities actively seek Indian students.

However, our higher education suffers from many limitations some of which owe their  origin to the limited effectiveness of UGC. Therefore, before discussing the problems of higher  education it is better to discuss the problems of UGC itself.

Problems of higher education in india | UPSC – IAS

  • Politicization of education with UGC becoming an arm of the HRD ministry, lacking autonomy  and freedom.
  • It is an overburdened body which regulates and oversees all the universities of the country  including private and deemed, which is practically impossible for a single body  considering the number of universities and affiliated colleges in the country.
  • Policy fluctuation and arbitrariness.
  • All the rules made by UGC need parliamentary approval but these are not always taken and  hence they can be cancelled by the court, jeopardizing the future of thousands.

All this factors combined with government apathy and interference and status-quoist attitude of  policymakers, has resulted in considerable malice in our higher education. In specific terms they  are as follows:

  • We have only 722 universities, as against the National Knowledge Commission (NKC)  recommendation of 1,500.
  • Not even one Indian higher education institution made it to the top 200 club in the Times  Higher Education (THE) rankings for 2014-15.
  • Disparity in access to education, especially in terms of economic class, gender,  caste and ethnic and religious belonging.
  • Expansion of the private, self-financing education sector, with commercial intent, has been  another reason for the propagation of disparities. There has been a decline in the government  institutes and increase in the private institutes. For 2013 the share of private undergraduate  colleges and students is at 59 per cent and 37 per cent respectively. Out of the 712 universities,  about 360 are of private, state and of deemed status. The high cost of private education has  affected access by the poor to education.
  • Lack of autonomy and independence, universally accepted as fundamental in higher education.
  • Narrow view of education with education limited to attendance, exam, marks and  degree. This results in poorly skilled students. As per a survey only 19% of engineering and 5%  of non-engineering graduates are employable.
  • Unscientific, partisan and non-merit based appointment of the faculty/vice-chancellor.
  • Outdated Curriculum susceptible to tampering based on ideology of the government. It curbs  creativity and critical thinking with skills set out of sync with modern times.
  • Faculty accountability is missing in India. Worldwide, teachers are assessed by the students  but the practice is yet to be followed in India in spite of rising salaries especially in the  government universities and colleges.
  • Poor quality of Research and Development in the universities, with the link to the  industries missing and declining government support to R&D.
  • Lack of access to global courses and knowledge.

Way Forward and Suggestions for Improvement | UPSC – IAS

Suggestions for Higher Education:

  • The National Policy on Education (NPE) that was adopted by Parliament in May 1986  and Programme of Action (POA), 1986, and updated in 1992. Last review done in 1965  by Kothari Commission. Like in west regular review of education policy including higher  education. For example UK has an institute for education statistics, as policy making with reliable  data on a regular basis to assist policymaking.
  • Emphasis should be on better teachers with quality training modules for them.  Given the low rate of enrolment, we need more quality teaching institutions at the  undergraduate level.
  • Massive expansion of government universities and colleges providing quality  education at low cost is the need of time. Expansion of self-financing private  institutions be restricted to a reasonable level or compensate low income strata  students with scholarship to enable them to study in private colleges. The present  method, of extending educational loans from banks with interest subsidy by the MHRD,  does not help the poor. Else, education rather than being a socio-economic leveler will become a  source of disparity.
  • Infrastructure can be improved with an increase in financial allocation. Academic reforms should be after deliberations with all the stakeholders and consistent to avoid unnecessary controversies like FYUP or CBCS. In the case of faculty, enforce the University Grant Commission’s (UGC) teacher-student ratio for each State, and ensure that the financial requirement of additional faculty is shared by the Centre and States.
  • English textbooks of concerned subjects should be translated to the hindi/regional languages. The three- language formula needs to be adhered to. Teaching in the regional languages would make understanding relatively easy while minimal language competence in English should facilitate student access to English books. This method has been successful in Japan.
  • Allow foreign educational institutions to enter into collaborations with Indian institutions  on a large scale. Use of Massive Online Open Courses be encouraged.
  • Autonomy as far as academic and administrative aspects are involved is a must. It includes  the appointment of heads of institutional and executive bodies. A UGC committee had  suggested the independence of institutions from the government as the bottom line for autonomy.
  • Efficient use of skill development program of the government and improving the apprenticeship  scheme.
  • Identifying and empowering 50 top universities in every possible manner to seek global  excellence as done by Russia.
  • Increasing funding, including corporate funding for Indian universities.
  • Incentivising research and publications among faculty members.
  • In Korea, the best students enter the teaching profession because the social status of a  teacher is very high. We need such a system in India.

Reforms Specific to University Grants Commission | UPSC – IAS

Higher education remains over-regulated and badly governed with far too many regulatory agencies in the picture. For such reasons, the NKC recommended the setting up of an Independent Regulatory Authority for Higher Education which would take on most of the roles of the UGC, the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), the Medical Council of India (MCI) and the Bar Council of India, all of which would either be abolished or assigned more limited roles. A government-appointed committee has already recommended abolishing UGC and replacing it with Independent Regulatory Authority for Higher Education.

Hence, it is important that structural and functional reform be introduced for UGC to make it relevant in contemporary times rather than an obstruction to the development of a world class higher education system. It should be provided autonomy so as to remain independent of changing ideologies of successive governments. Its regulatory and overseeing role needs to be relooked at to make them conducive rather than interfering. It should also be provided with representation from states for more holistic and grounded policymaking.

Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (pvtg) | UPSC – IAS | PCS

Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (pvtg) UPSC IAS PCS

Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (pvtg) UPSC IAS PCS

Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) | UPSC – IAS

Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (pvtg) –  (earlier it was –  Primitive Tribal Groups) was the category with in Scheduled Tribes created on recommendation of Dhebar commission.

  • Presently there are 75 tribal groups categorized by Ministry of Home Affairs as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (pvtg)
  • PVTGs reside in 18 States and UT of A&N Islands.
  • The Central government is planning to reimpose Restricted Area Permit (RAP) in the North Sentinel island where an American was killed by members of the Sentinelese tribe.

Issues and News  | UPSC – IAS

Due to security reasons, certain areas have been declared as Protected Area/Restricted Areas where no foreigner can enter or stay without obtaining permit from the competent authorities.

  • Under the Foreigners (Restricted) Areas Order, 1963, parts of Sikkim and entire Andaman & Nicobar Islands have been declared as `Restricted’ Areas.
  • Under the Foreigners (Protected Areas) Order, 1958, all areas falling between the ‘Inner line’ and the International Border of the State have been declared as ‘Protected Areas’.
  • Currently Protected Areas are located in- all of Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim, parts of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Rajasthan and Uttarakhand.
  • The North Sentinel island is one of 29 islands for which government had relaxed the RAP in order to promote tourism and boost employment opportunities.

Tribes of Andaman & Nicobar | UPSC – IAS 

  • There are 6 aboriginal tribes in Andaman & Nicobar islands belonging to two broad groups of Negrito and Mongoloid. Except Nicobarese (Mongoloid), the rest 5 are recognizes as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) i.e. Sentinelese (Negrito), Great Andamanese (Negrito), Ongs (Negrito), Jarawas (Negrito) and Shom Pens (Mongoloid).
  • Sentinelese: They the only remaining tribe in the Andamans to still maintain their isolation from the rest of the world and live like hunter gatherers.
    • o They are connected to the Jarawa on the basis of physical, as well as linguistic similarities.
    • o Both Sentinelese men and women do not wear clothes.
  • Great Andamanese: The great Andamanese is a collective term used for 10 different tribes that lived in most of the large islands in the Andaman.
    • They are also known for their brave History where they fought with bows and arrows with the English men who tried to occupy their land (The Battle of Aberdeen).
    • Today most tribes are extinct and their cultural and linguistic identities largely been lost. (e.g. their members now speak mostly Hindi).
  • Jarawa: Jarawas continue to be hunting and gathering nomadic tribe and are often hostile to outsiders.
    • Men fish with bows and arrows in the coastal waters while women catch fish with basket.
  • Onge: They are hunting and gathering tribe settled at Dugong Creek and South Bay on Little Andaman Island.
  • Shompen: The Shompens are primarily hunter-gatherers and also practise a little bit of horticulture and pig rearing.
  • Nicobarese: They are largest of tribes and are primarily horticulturalists.

Issues being faced by the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (pvtg) | UPSC – IAS

These tribes have faced social disintegration among them with cultural erosion in the wake of contacts.

  • Diseases: Some expeditions to establish contact with these tribes have led to spread contagious diseases among them.
  • Disasters: The islands inhabited by these tribes are often faced with natural disasters such as the Tsunami of 2004. Also, global warming has been putting pressure on these areas.
  • Unsustainable and exploitative tourist influx in the region has led to serious problems for these tribes and for the region too. Outsiders coming mainly from Tamil Nadu and West Bengal have outnumbered these tribes.
  • Loss of food: Loss of forests, overfishing, etc. has diminished their food sources.

A Way Forward :- | UPSC – IAS

Protect Cultural Heritage:

  • Extensive efforts must be made to ensure that their customs, languages, religious practises etc. are not lost as a result of outside influence.
  • The ANTRI (Andaman and Nicobar Tribal Research and Training Institute) has been set up with an objective of formulation of policies for tribal integration and protection of PVTGs

Prevent Forced contact:

  • It is important that security apparatus is stepped up and the region is properly policed and protected from any outsiders – fishermen, tourists or evangelicals.
  • The A&N (Protection of Aboriginal Tribes) Regulation, 1956 provides protection to the aboriginal tribes by declaring their traditional areas as reserves and prohibited entry of all persons except those with authorisation.
  • With regard to Sentinelese tribes, the A&N Administration has adopted an ‘eyes-on and hands-off’ policy to ensure that no poachers enter into the island.

Provide Basic Social Services:-

  • Health Services, Basic education, etc. must be provided to the tribes that are being assimilated in the mainstream. Specific issues like natural disasters, endemic diseases such as anaemia, etc. must also be attended to.
  • The Ministry of Tribal Affairs is implementing the “Development of PVTGs” scheme which covers the 75 identified PVTGs among Scheduled Tribes in various states/UTs.

Promote sustainable Economic activities:

  • Development of cottage industries, plantations crops (e.g. coconut), fishing, animal husbandry etc. are some viable economic options given the fact that there is not much scope for agriculture.
  • Sustainable tourism activities like adventure sports, deep sea diving, etc can be promoted without putting the tribes at danger from outsider contact.
  • Tackling ecological Issues such afforestation, coral bleaching, sewage discharge,etc should also be of high priority.

Intensified Mission Indradhanush 2019 | UPSC – IAS

Intensified Mission Indradhanush 2019 UPSC - IAS

 

Intensified Mission Indradhanush 2019 UPSC - IAS

Intensified Mission Indradhanush 2019 | UPSC – IAS

Intensified Mission Indradhanush (IMI), is one of 12 best practices from around the world to be featured in a special issue of the British Medical Journal.

Background Knowledge about Mission Indradhanush | UPSC – IAS

  • In India, five lakh children die every year due to vaccine-preventable diseases; 95 lakh are at risk because they are unimmunised or partially immunised. But immunization coverage had slowed down and it increased at the rate of 1% per year between 2009 and 2013.
  • To accelerate this coverage Mission Indradhanush was envisaged and implemented since 2015 to rapidly increase the full immunization coverage to 90%.

About Intensified Mission Indradhanush (IMI) | UPSC – IAS

  • It has been launched by the Government of India to reach each and every child under two years of age and all those pregnant women who have been left uncovered under the routine immunisation programme.
  • The special drive will focus on improving immunization coverage in select districts and cities to ensure full immunization to more than 90% by December 2018.

It will have inter-ministerial and inter-departmental coordination, action-based review mechanism and intensified monitoring and accountability framework for effective implementation of targeted rapid interventions to improve the routine immunization coverage.

  • It would be closely monitored at the district, state and central level at regular intervals. Further, it would be reviewed by the Cabinet Secretary at the National level and will continue to be monitored at the highest level under a special initiative ‘Proactive Governance and Timely Implementation (PRAGATI)’.
  • The first two phases of Mission Indradhanush contributed to an increase in Full Immunization Coverage by 6.7%. This increase, however, would not be sufficient to achieve full Immunization Coverage of more than 90% of newborns by 2020 as aimed under Mission Indradhanush which would need a supplemental aggressive action plan to cover all left outs and drop outs in select districts and urban cities with low routine immunization coverage in a specific time-frame.

Challenges to immunization (Vaccination) | UPSC – IAS

  • It targets to immunize all children against seven vaccine preventable diseases namely –
    • Diphtheria,
    • Pertussis,
    • Tetanus,
    • Childhood Tuberculosis,
    • Polio,
    • Hepatitis B and Measles.
  • In addition to this, vaccines for Japanese Encephalitis, Haemophilus influenzae type B, inactivated polio vaccine, Rotavirus vaccine and Measles Rubella vaccine are also being provided in selected states.
  • Limited capacities of staff (vacant positions and lack of training), particularly in poor-performing states and at the field level, and gaps in key areas such as predicting demand, logistics and cold chain management, which result in high wastage rates.
  • India lacks a robust system to track vaccine-preventable diseases. Vaccination coverage varies considerably from state to state, with the lowest rates in India’s large central states.

Other challenges includes-

  • Lack of adequate health infrastructure and insufficient government investment;
  • Low demand caused by poor education of the population and presence of anti-vaccine advocates.
  • Parents’ lack of awareness of the immunisation benefits, schedules and locations.
  • Inconvenient timings of vaccination for many people (during working hours).
  • Poor community participation.

A Way forward | UPSC – IAS

  • Strengthening of health management information systems, including data recording and registration systems, called Mother and Child Tracking System (MCTS).
  • The linking of already available systems with the unique identification like Aadhaar can facilitate tracking of the beneficiaries.
  • Furthermore, development of universal health cards and electronic record maintenance for maternal and child health care is highly desirable. This can facilitate care seeking by the migrant population in urban areas and can be used to decide resource allocations.
  • Devoting greater financial resources towards immunisation coverage with concerted efforts to improve social mobilisation for immunisation is warranted.
  • Strengthening a network of community health workers in urban and peri-urban areas to contribute towards progress in immunisation coverage by reaching out to both slum as well as non-slum populations is of utmost priority.
  • Facilitating improvement in knowledge and awareness regarding child immunisation can be intensified with the use of mass media, interpersonal communication, school and youth networks.
  • Reaching out to communities and areas with poor immunisation coverage with well-articulated strategies for community awareness will be key to success.

Effects of globalization on Indian Society | UPSC – IAS

Online education

What is Globalization and its Significance, Causes and Effects ? | UPSC - IAS

What is Globalization and its Significance, Causes and Effects ? | UPSC – IAS

(Brief Overview)

Globalization thrives on the world’s new, inexpensive transportation and communication facilities. It requires freedom of movement across borders of goods, services, capital, knowledge, and people. It also requires new institutions for negotiating rules and regulations across international borders.

  • With globalization, and the internet, billions of dollars of investment capital can move around the globe at the stroke of a key.
  • Globalization means increased trade among nations, as well as increased travel, world art, music, and literature, and new dimensions of economic investment.
  • New and different social and cultural forms have arisen. However, globalization has also led to increasing disparities of wealth between the rich and the poor, and this disparity has fostered movements opposing further globalization.
  • Globalization means integration of economies and societies through cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and people.
  • Globalization has made countries to realize that nations can no longer be cocooned in their own cultural or economic nests but invariably be part of the larger picture which takes into account the competencies, interests and the dependencies of economies world -wide.

Information Technology and Globalisation | UPSC – IAS

  • Globally use of the Internet increased phenomenally in the 1990s. In 1998 there were 70 million Internet users world-wide. Of these USA and Canada accounted for 62% while Asia had 12%. By 2000 the number of Internet users had risen to 325 million. India had 3 million Internet subscribers and 15 million users by 2000, thanks to the proliferation of cyber cafes all over the country.
  • The spread of multinational companies and the opportunities opened up by the information technology revolution has created in the metropolitan cities in India class of upwardly mobile professionals working in software firms, multinational banks, chartered accountancy firms, stock markets, travel, fashion designing, entertainment, media and other allied fields. These high-flying professionals have highly stressful work schedules, get exorbitant salaries and are the main clientele of the booming consumer industry.
  • It should also be noted that for the first time, mainly due to the information technology revolution, there has been a globalisation of finance. Globally integrated financial markets undertake billions of dollars worth transactions within seconds in the electronic circuits. There is a 24-hour trading in capital and security markets. Cities such as New York, Tokyo and London are the key centers for financial trading. Within India, Mumbai is known as the financial capital of the country.
  • With the advent of globalization, a nation’s economy became more connected with and dependent on those in other countries around the world. For example, when several Asian countries faced economic turmoil in the late 1990s, the economic impact was felt in Western nations at the corporate and individual levels.

Positive and Negative effects of Globalisation | UPSC – IAS

Negative effects of Globalization

  • Digital divide
  • Natural manure is replaced by synthetic fertilizers.
  • Greater threat of spread of communicable diseases
  • Global recession impact on Indian economy
  • Jobless growth
  • Westernization: valentine day, clothes (low-waist jeans) (can be – or +) no culture is bad
  • Threat to traditional knowledge system: Rudraksha and Basmati rice has highlighted the need for protecting the base of its indigenous knowledge system
  • Urbanization migration (rural to urban)
  • Rise of materialism leads to → Consumerism

Positive effects of Globalization

  • Cultural interaction has helped to overcome cultural barriers.
  • Tourism
  • Removal of orthodox obstacles → women empowerment
  • MNC’s BPO KPO → job creation
  • Human rights issues highlighted
  • Woman empowerment / issues highlighted
  • Gender equality
  • Increase competition → good product with cheaper rates
  • Economic development & economic independence of women → increase in self confidence

Debatable question – Different views on Globalization

  • In Economics we have views on pro-globalization by Jagdish Bhagwati etc. who build on the economic notion that free trade helps everybody and lift the poor out of poverty,
  • While we have the anti-globalization views -by the likes of Vandana Shiva, Arundhati Roy, etc.,who see globalization as a way for multinational corporations and multilateral institutions (World Bank, IMF) to change the rules all over the world to ensure better markets for the rich countries.

Conclusion  | UPSC – IAS

Process of globalization is not new. The globalization of the economic, social and cultural structures happened in all ages. Earlier the pace of such a process was so slow that we hardly noticed.

Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture | UPSC IAS

Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture NCERT - UPSC IAS gk today

Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture NCERT - UPSC IAS gk today

Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture  | NCERT – UPSC | IAS | PCS

As a result of overcrowding of agriculture, excessive land revenue demand, growth of landlordism, increasing indebtedness, and the growing impoverishment of the cultivators, Indian agriculture began to stagnate and even deteriorate resulting in extremely low yields per acre

  • At a time when agriculture all over the world was being modernised and revolutionised, Indian agriculture was technologically stagnating, hardly any modern machinery was used.
  • There was a sudden and quick collapse of the urban handicrafts which had for centuries made India’s name a byword in the markets of the entire civilised world
  • The peasant was also progressively impoverished under British rule, his material condition deteriorated and he steadily sank into poverty. In the very beginning of British rule in Bengal, the policy of Clive and Warren Hasting of extracting the largest possible land revenue had led to such devastation
  • By 1815, half the total land in Bengal had passed into hands of money-lenders, merchants, and rich peasants who usually got the land cultivated by tenants. The new zamindars, with increased powers but with little or no avenues for new investments, resorted to land-grabbing and sub-infeudation.Warren Hastings’ policy of auctioning the rights of revenue collection to the highest bidders, (Izaredari System)

Economic Impact of British Rule in India | UPSC – IAS

Economic Impact of British Rule in India | NCERT – UPSC – IAS

Economic Impact of British Rule in India NCERT - UPSC IAS gk today

Economic Impact of British Rule in India NCERT - UPSC IAS gk today

Economic Impact of British Rule in India | NCERT – UPSC | IAS | PCS

(In Points )

The British conquest had a pronounced (noticeable) and profound (extremely felt) economic impact on India. The economic policies followed by the British led to the rapid transformation of India’s economy into a colonial economy whose nature and structure were determined by the needs of the British economy.

  • The Indian economy under the British Raj describes the economy of India during the years of the British Raj, from 1858 to 1947. During this period, according to British economist Angus Maddison, India’s share of the world economy collapsed from 24.4% in 1700 to 4.2% in 1950. India experienced deindustrialization. Compared to the Mughal Era, India during the British colonial era had a lower per-capita income, a large decline in the secondary sector, and lower levels of urbanisation.
  • In this respect the British conquest differed from all previous foreign conquests. The previous conquerors had overthrown Indian political powers but had made no basic changes in the country’s economic structure; they had gradually become a part of Indian life, political as well as economic
  • British totally disrupted the traditional structure of the Indian economy, Moreover they never became an integral part of Indian life. They always remained foreigners in the land, exploiting Indian resources and carrying away India’s wealth as tribute.
  • India’s GDP (PPP) per capita was stagnant during the Mughal Empire and began to decline prior to the onset of British rule. India’s share of global industrial output also declined from 25% in 1750 down to 2% in 1900.  At the same time, the United Kingdom’s share of the world economy rose from 2.9% in 1700 up to 9% in 1870.
Year PPP GDP per Capita of India (as % of UK)
1820 31.25
1870 16.72
1913 13.68

Economic Impact of British Rule in India | In – Short

Integrated Health Information Platform – Disease Surveillance | UPSC – PIB

Integrated Health Information Platform - Disease Surveillance UPSC - PIB

Integrated Health Information Platform - Disease Surveillance UPSC - PIB

Integrated Health Information Platform | UPSC – IAS

Integrated Health Information Platform (IHIP) under Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP) was launched in 7 states.

 

What is Integrated Health Information Platform (IHIP) ? | UPSC – IAS | PIB

  • It is real time, village wise, case based electronic health information system with GIS tagging which will help in prompt prevention and control of epidemic prone diseases.
  • It will provide near-real-time data to policy makers for detecting outbreaks, reducing the morbidity and mortality and lessening disease burden in the populations and better health systems.
  • The objective behind setting up IHIP was to enable creation of interoperable Electronic Health Records (EHRs) which can be made available and accessible throughout the country.
  • Information from other branches like tuberculosis control programme, maternal and child health programme and non-communicable disease programme also will be included in this platform.

Benefits from Integrated Health Information Platform (IHIP)  | UPSC – IAS | PIB

  • Reducing Medical Errors – It provides a vehicle for improving quality and safety of patient care by reducing medication and medical errors.
  • Patient Involvement- It stimulates consumer education and patients’ involvement in their own health care.
  • Increases efficiency – by eliminating unnecessary paperwork and provides caregivers with clinical decision support tools for more effective care and treatment
  • Improves public health reporting and monitoring – by creating a potential loop for feedback between health-related research and actual practice. Further, it provides a basic level of interoperability among electronic health records (EHRs) maintained by individual physicians and organizations.
  • Technology in Healthcare – It facilitates efficient deployment of emerging technology and health care services and provides the backbone of technical infrastructure for leverage by national and State level initiatives

What is Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP) ? | UPSC – IAS | PIB

  • Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme is a disease surveillance scheme under National Health Mission, under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare in India, assisted by the World Bank.
  • The scheme seeks to set up a Central Disease Surveillance Unit and a State Surveillance Unit in each State where data is collected and analyzed.
  • The IDSP portal is a one stop portal which has facilities for data entry, view reports, outbreak reporting, data analysis, training modules and resources related to disease surveillance.

A Way forward

  • While digitization of health records is a welcome step, there is a need to enhance research facilities to deal with new and emerging viral threats like Zika Virus, Nipah Virus etc.
  • Further, utilizing such technical advancements would entail a need for well trained and committed workforce who would regularly monitor the cases.

Indian Human Microbiome Initiative | UPSC – IAS | PIB

Indian Human Microbiome Initiative UPSC - IAS PIB

Indian Human Microbiome Initiative UPSC - IAS PIB

Indian Human Microbiome Initiative | UPSC – IAS | PIB

Indian Human Microbiome Initiative Project, led by The National Centre for Microbial Resource (NCMR) – National Centre for Cell Science (NCCS) has been put up for approval.

What is Microbiome?  | UPSC – IAS | PIB

  • The collective genome of all micro-organisms contained within the human body, residing inside tissues & bio-fluids is called Human Microbiome. It includes bacteria, archaea, fungi, protists and viruses.
  • Most of them have either commensal (co-exist without harming humans) or mutualistic (each benefit from the other).
  • Different parts of human body including the skin, mammary glands, placenta, uterus, ovarian follicles, lungs, saliva, oral mucosa, conjunctiva, biliary and gastrointestinal tracts, are occupied by characteristic microbial populations.
  • The composition of microbiome is shaped by factors such as genetics, dietary habits, age, geographic location and ethnicity. Human microbiome makes up around 2% of the body mass of the adult.

Importance of the Human Microbiome | UPSC – IAS | PIB

Microbial communities play a key role in many aspects of host physiology:

  • Metabolism of otherwise complex indigestible carbohydrates and fats
  • Production of essential vitamins
  • Maintaining immune systems
  • Acting as a first line of defense against pathogens
  • Influence the susceptibility to certain infectious diseases, as well as contribute to disorders such as obesity and diabetes
  • Determines how one responds to a particular drug treatment

The diversity of microbes that make up human microbiome could lead to novel therapies e.g. an infection caused by a ‘bad’ bacterial species can be treated by promoting the growth of ‘good’ bacteria.

Indian Human Microbiome Initiative | NCMR & NCCS | UPSC - IAS | PIB Gk today The Hindu

About Human Microbiome Project (HMP) | UPSC – IAS | PIB

  • Human Microbiome Project is a research initiative of US’s National Institute of Health with the mission to generate the resources and expertise needed to characterize the human microbiome and analyze its role in health and disease.
  • Launched in 2007, it is focused on identifying and characterizing human microbial fauna and elucidating their roles in health and diseases.
  • Some methodologies used in HMP are:
    • o Metagenomics as a culture-independent method of broad microbial community characterization
    • o Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS) to provide a “deep” genetic perspective on aspects of a given microbial community, i.e. individual bacterial species

Human Microbiome Research in India | UPSC – IAS | PIB

  • India doesn’t have a dedicated national human microbiome project. But, the proposed Indian Human Microbiome Initiative holds a lot of potential.
  • The project will include collection of saliva, stool and skin swabs of 20,000 Indians across various ethnic groups from
    different geographical regions. India provides for a wide range of research with more than 4,500 ethnic groups and presence of two global biodiversity hotspots (Himalayan range and Western Ghats).
  • Scientists have found that Indian population, particularly tribals, have distinct gut microbiota than individuals from other parts of the world. Such tribal populations largely unaffected by “modern” diet and have lower prevalence of lifestyle diseases and their study would shed some light on mutualism between gut microbiota and the host.

Key terms Explanation

What is Metagenomics ? | UPSC – IAS | PIB

  • It is a sequence-based approach that allows the genetic material from the complete collection of microbes to be analyzed in their natural environment without needing to cultivate the microorganisms.
  • Currently, only a small percentage of the bacteria that comprise the human microbiome have been identified and studied. Majority (>95%) of them are difficult to isolate and culture, because the required growth conditions cannot be reproduced in the laboratory.
  • However, recent technological advances in DNA sequencing and the development of meta-genomics have now made it feasible to analyze the entire human microbiome.

Earth Biogenome project & its Significance | UPSC – IAS and PIB

Earth Biogenome project & its Significance UPSC and PIB IAS

Earth Biogenome project & its Significance UPSC and PIB IAS

About Earth BioGenome Project | UPSC – IAS

International biologists have launched an ambitious Earth BioGenome Project at an estimated cost of $4.7bn.

Aim of the Project – It aims to sequence, catalog and characterize the genomes of all of Earth’s eukaryotic biodiversity over a period of ten years.

Significance of Earth Biogenome project | UPSC and PIB

  • Saving Biodiversity: Given Climate Change and related worries such as loss of forest cover, about 50% of current biodiversity could be lost by the end of the 21st century in what is being referred to as the Sixth Great Extinction. This Project will help record the genomes of organisms at risk.
  • Discovery of Unknown Species: It is believed that there are somewhere between 2 million and 3 million eukaryotic species on the planet. Only about half have been identified so far.
  • New Resources: It should also lead to the discovery of new drugs, new biofuels, and boost agricultural technologies, with obvious commercial benefits.
  • Generate Revenues: It could help to boost scientific capacity and generate revenues for poor countries with rich biodiversity.
  • Better Understanding: It will revolutionize the understanding of biology and evolution and thus create new approaches for the conservation of rare and endangered species.

Challenges in Earth Biogenome project | UPSC and PIB

  • High Quality data: The most difficult part in EBP will be to acquire and process high-quality samples from species that are hard to reach.
  • Lack of Technologies: New technologies such as specimen-collecting drones may need to be developed.
  • IPR issue: There are complicated protocols involved in transferring physical samples and genetic data across borders, and there are bound to be disputes about the sharing of the benefits obtained.
  • Legal Frameworks: While the Nagoya Protocols of 2014 provide a framework for such transfers, the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity will have to work out new protocols and, ideally, create a new, transparent and equitable legal framework.

About Earth BioGenome Project | UPSC and PIB

  • It involves projects by various countries:
    • US-led project to sequence the genetic code of tens of thousands of vertebrates
    • Chinese project to sequence 10,000 plant genomes
    • The Global Ant Genomes Alliance, which aims to sequence around 200 ant genomes.
  • UK participants, led by the Wellcome Sanger Institute, will also sequence the genetic codes of all 66,000 species inhabiting Britain in a national effort called the Darwin Tree of Life.
  • Currently, fewer than 3,500, or about 0.2 per cent of all known eukaryotic species on Earth have had their genome sequenced.
  • Physical samples would be stored frozen in liquid nitrogen in four or more facilities located in different parts of the world, and repositories of digitised information would be created.
  • The completed project will generate at least 1 exabyte (that is, 1 billion gigabytes) of data, which is to be
    shared online for free.
  • The initiative would produce a database of biological information that provides a platform for scientific research and supports environmental and conservation initiatives.
  • The participating institutions would raise their own funding as far as possible. However, the project has the backing of the World Economic Forum
  • The potential benefits of EGP are compared to those from Human Genome Project, which has transformed research into human health and disease.

Key – terms  Explain | UPSC and PIB

Eukaryotes  

  • These are organisms whose cells have a nucleus enclosed by membranes.
  • These are animals, plants, fungi and protozoa, which encompass all of life except simple microbes (bacteria and archaea).

Prokaryotes

  • These are the organisms with single cell nucleus e.g. bacteria and archaea.

Human Genome Project (HGP) | UPSC and PIB

  • It was the international, collaborative research program whose goal was the complete mapping and understanding of all the genes of human beings. All our genes together are known as our “genome”.
  • It helped to develop modern sequencing techniques, which have vastly improved the efficiency while reducing the costs of genomic research.
  • It read the genetic code of just one species, Homo sapiens, between 1990 and 2003.

Neutrinos its Misconceptions and Significance | UPSC – IAS

Neutrinos its Misconceptions and Significance UPSC – IAS

Neutrinos its Misconceptions and Significance UPSC – IAS

Neutrinos its Misconceptions and Significance | UPSC – IAS

What are Neutrinos particles ?

  • The elusive neutrinos are second most abound particles in the universe, yet a lot more is to be understood about them.
  • They interact very little with anything and pass through everything that’s why it’s hard to detect them.
  • They carry no electrical charge and nearly massless.
  • It occurs in 3 different types/flavors, separated based on mass (electron-neutrino, muon-neutrino, tau-neutrino).
  • It is produced in the core of the sun & millions of them roam around in the solar system.
  • They are key to understanding the evolution of universe and energy production in the Sun and the stars.

Misconceptions related to neutrinos | UPSC – IAS | Pib 

Several misconceptions related to neutrino research led to common opposition to the project

  • Harmful to the human body: They are least harmful of elementary particles, as they hardly interact with matter. In fact, trillions of solar neutrinos pass through our body every second without doing any harm to us.
  • Effect of the associated radiation: No radiation is involved as INO only studies atmospheric neutrinos produced by cosmic rays in the atmosphere.
  • Potential uses in weaponization: They are often confused with neutrons, which can be used to produce nuclear weapons.

Other neutrino study projects 

  • LAGUNA (Large Apparatus studying Grand Unification & Neutrino Astrophysics) in Europe
  • Hyper Kamiokande Detector at Kamioka Observatory in Hida (Japan)
  • DUNE (Deep Underground Neutrino) project in South Dakota (US)

Significance of India-based Neutrino Observatory (INO) | UPSC – IAS | Pib 

  • It will give a boost to scientific studies in India and encourage students to take up Science and Research as profession.
  • It has been gaining urgency in the recent years with China announcing the construction of a similar neutrino observatory in Jiangmen province.
  • Nicknamed the ‘blueprint of nature’ by scientists, neutrinos are an important tool for mankind to learn how matter evolved from simple particles into more complex composites, creating everything around us.

How neutrino research is useful ? | UPSC – IAS | Pib 

  • Messengers of cosmic information, as they travel large distances without much interaction. Can revolutionize the existing understanding of astrophysics, astronomy and communication
  • Basic building blocks of matter, along with quarks and electrons. Enhance understanding of basic physical laws
  • Role in nuclear non-proliferation through remote monitoring of nuclear reactors, where neutrinos are produced in abundance
  • As they change their direction and spin based on the medium, they can be used to map natural resources inside the earth
  • Helpful in understanding of dark matter (which constitute 95% of earth), as they are one of the few particles that can pass through it
  • Rapid analysis of geo-neutrinos (produced by radioactive decay of uranium, potassium and thorium in the earth’s crust) by the monitoring systems, called Neutrino Tomography, could provide vital seismographic information & may help us detect early defect inside the earth
  • Neutrinos can pass right through the earth and thus, neutrino-based communication systems are better than round the earth communication through cables, towers and satellites. No data transmission loss as they rarely interact with other particles. If there is any extra-terrestrial life, most effective way to communicate with them

India based neutrino observatory | Potential ecological concerns | UPSC – IAS | Pib

The National Green Tribunal (NGT) upheld the environmental clearance granted to the India-based Neutrino Observatory (INO), a major research facility proposed in Theni district of Tamil Nadu.

  • Contamination of ground water due to leaching of chemicals
  • Negative impact on the aquifers and nearby dams due to the vibrations caused by blasting the rocks
  • Tectonic fracturing may make geological structure unstable, increasing vulnerability of already ecologically sensitive Western Ghats
  • If INO moves from studying atmospheric neutrino properties to probing accelerator-produced neutrinos, it would require precision underground facilities to contain radioactivity

Hyperspectral Imaging Satellite | UPSC – IAS | Pib and ISRO

Hyperspectral Imaging Satellite UPSC IAS Pib and ISRO

Hyperspectral Imaging Satellite UPSC IAS Pib and ISRO

Hyperspectral Imaging Satellite | UPSC – IAS | ISRO

ISRO’s PSLV C43 launched India’s first Hyperspectral Imaging Satellite (HysIS) along with 30 foreign satellites from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota.

  • Hyperspectral Imaging Satellite (Hysis) is an earth observation satellite built around ISRO’s Mini Satellite-2 (IMS-2) bus.

hyperspectral imaging satellite isro UPSC IAS PCS SSC Isro

About the Hyperspectral Imaging Technology | UPSC – IAS

  • It combines the power of digital imaging and spectroscopy to attain both spatial and spectral information from an object.
  • This result can be then used to identify, measure and locate different materials and their chemical and physical properties. Every pixel in the image contains a continuous spectrum (in radiance or reflectance) and can be used to characterize the objects in the scene with great precision and detail.
  • Hyperspectral images provide much more detailed information about the scene by dividing the spectrum into many more bands than a normal color camera, which only acquires three different spectral channels corresponding to the visual primary colors red, green and blue.
  • It was first tried by ISRO in an experimental satellite in May 2008 and later on Chandrayaan-1 mission for mapping lunar mineral resources, this is the first time a full-fledged hyperspectral imaging satellite (Hysis) has been launched.

Application of Hyperspectral Remote Sensing Isro | UPSC – IAS 

  • Hyperspectral remote sensing is used for a range of applications like agriculture, forestry, soil survey, geology, coastal zones, inland water studies, environmental studies, detection of pollution from industries and the military for surveillance or anti-terror operations.
  • Other utilities include online industrial monitoring/sorting/classification to laboratory measurements, clinical instruments for medical diagnostic and airborne and satellite based remote sensing tools.

Challenges: This technology is accompanied with high cost and complexity. There is a need for fast processing of data (fast computers), sensitive detectors and large data storage capacities for hyperspectral imaging data.

Key – Terms | related to Hyperspectral imaging satellite (Hysis) (UPSC – IAS)

Polar Sun-Synchronous orbit

  • It is a nearly polar orbit around a planet, in which the satellite passes over any given point of the planet’s surface at the same local mean solar time.

Geosynchronous orbit

  • It is an orbit around Earth of a satellite with an orbital period that matches Earth’s rotation on its axis, which takes one sidereal day.

Geostationary orbit

  • It is a circular geosynchronous orbit 35,786 km (22,236 mi) above Earth’s equator and following the direction of Earth’s rotation.

What is Spectral Imaging ? (Isro)

  • It is imaging that uses multiple bands across the electromagnetic spectrum like using infrared, the visible spectrum, the ultraviolet, x-rays, or some combination of the above.
    hyperspectral imaging vs multi spectral imaging
  • The main difference between multispectral and hyperspectral is the number of bands and how narrow the bands are.
  • Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) uses continuous and contiguous ranges of wavelengths (e.g. 400 – 1100 nm in steps of 0.1 nm) whilst multispectral imaging (MSI) uses a subset of targeted wavelengths at chosen locations (e.g. 400 – 1100 nm in steps of 20 nm).
  • Hyperspectral imagery consists of much narrower bands (10-20 nm). A hyperspectral image could have hundreds or thousands of bands. In general, it comes from an imaging spectrometer.

Keywords – Isro, The Hindu, Pib, UPSC – IAS, hysis isro

Convention on Biological Diversity | Sharm El-Sheikh Declaration UPSC

Convention on Biological Diversity Sharm El-Sheikh Declaration UPSC IAS

Convention on Biological Diversity Sharm El-Sheikh Declaration UPSC IAS

COP – 14 and Sharm El-Sheikh Declaration | UPSC – IAS

Recently, Conference of the Parties (COP-14) to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was held, adopting Sharm El-Sheikh Declaration.

Highlight of COP-14

  •  Adoption of Sharm El-Sheikh Declaration on Investing in Biodiversity for People and Planet.
    • Governments commit to mainstream biodiversity through, integrating biodiversity values in legislative and policy frameworks, and development and finance plans.

Other Significant Highlight

  • New Deal for Nature: It is an agreement on a comprehensive and participatory process to develop post-2020 global biodiversity framework to further achieve the 2050 Vision for Biodiversity.
  • Launch of International Alliance of Nature and Culture to advance work on biological and cultural diversity in collaboration with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and indigenous peoples and local communities.
  • It called for UN General Assembly to designate 2021 to 2030 as the UN Decade of Ecosystem Restoration.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) | UPSC – IAS

  • Aim: To promote the conservation of biodiversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
  • It’s a near universal convention with a participation of 196 member countries. Protocols adopted under the Convention.
  • Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety: It seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology.
  • Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing: It aims at sharing the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way, including by appropriate access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies.

The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity includes a vision for 2050, five strategic goals and twenty Aichi Biodiversity Targets, mostly to be achieved by 2020. The twenty Aichi Biodiversity Targets are grouped under five strategic goals:

  • Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across government and society
  • Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use
  • Improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic diversity
  • Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services
  • Enhance implementation through participatory planning, knowledge management and capacity building.

The 2050 Vision stresses the role of biodiversity for human wellbeing: “biodiversity to be valued, conserved, restored and wisely used, maintaining ecosystem services, sustaining a healthy Planet and delivering benefits essential for all people”.

Montreal Protocol: Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion | UPSC – IAS

Montreal Protocol: Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: UPSC IAS

 

Montreal Protocol: Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: UPSC IAS

Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion | UPSC – IAS

The quadrennial (four-yearly) review of the Montreal Protocol reveals a healing ozone layer, global warming reduction potential, and options for more ambitious climate action.

Key findings of the Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion | UPSC – IAS

  • Actions taken under the Montreal Protocol have led to decreases in the atmospheric abundance of controlled ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) and the start of the recovery of stratospheric ozone.
  • The atmospheric abundances of both total tropospheric chlorine and total tropospheric bromine from long-lived ODSs controlled under the Montreal Protocol have continued to decline since the 2014 Assessment. Outside the Polar Regions, upper stratospheric ozone layer has recovered at a rate of 1-3% per decade since 2000.
  • The Antarctic ozone hole is recovering, while continuing to occur every year. As a result of the Montreal Protocol much more severe ozone depletion in the Polar Regions has been avoided.
  • At projected rates, Northern Hemisphere and mid-latitude ozone is scheduled to heal completely (i.e. equivalent to 1980 values) by the 2030s followed by
    the Southern Hemisphere in the 2050s and Polar Regions by 2060.
  • The Kigali Amendment is projected to reduce future global average warming in 2100 due to hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) from a baseline of 0.3–0.5 degree Celsius to less than 0.1 degree Celsius.

Key findings of the Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion 2018 UPSC - IAS PCS UPPSC UPPCS

Ozone change and its influence on climate | UPSC – IAS

  • Ozone is important in the climate system and its changes can influence both the troposphere and the stratosphere.
  • Influence on stratospheric climate: Decreases in stratospheric ozone caused by ODS increases have been an important contributor to observed stratospheric cooling.
    • New studies find that ODSs thereby contributed approximately one third of the observed cooling in the upper stratosphere from 1979 to 2005, with two thirds caused by increases in other GHGs.
  • Influence on surface climate and oceans: Lower stratospheric cooling due to ozone depletion has very likely been the dominant cause of late 20th century changes in Southern Hemisphere climate in summer. These changes include the observed poleward shift in Southern Hemisphere tropospheric circulation, with associated impacts on surface temperature and precipitation.
  • Changes in tropospheric circulation driven by ozone depletion have contributed to recent trends in Southern Ocean temperature and circulation; the impact on Antarctic sea ice remains unclear.

Future Global Ozone changes | UPSC – IAS

The key drivers of future ozone levels continue to be declining ODS concentrations, upper stratospheric cooling because of increased GHGs, and the possible strengthening of the Brewer-Dobson circulation (a model which attempts to explain how tropical air has less ozone than polar air, even though the tropical stratosphere is where most atmospheric ozone is produced) from climate change.

  • CO2, CH4, and N2O will be the main drivers of 60°S–60°N stratospheric ozone changes in the second half of the 21st century. These gases impact both chemical cycles and the stratospheric overturning circulation, with a larger response in stratospheric ozone associated with stronger climate forcing.
  • Given that ODS levels are expected to decline slowly in coming years, a large enhancement of stratospheric sulphate aerosol in the next decades would result in additional chemical ozone losses. Possible sources of additional stratospheric sulphate aerosol include volcanic eruptions (like Mt. Pinatubo in 1991) and geoengineering.

Why Montreal Protocol Worked ? | UPSC – IAS

The Montreal Protocol is one of the most successful and effective environmental treaties ever negotiated and implemented. No single factor led to its success.

  • Approach of Cooperation: From the start, negotiation relied heavily on leadership and innovative approaches. Much negotiation was held in small, informal groups. This enabled a genuine exchange of views and the opportunity to take some issues on trust, such as the subsequent development of the Multilateral Fund. The people negotiating the treaty also included scientists, which lent credibility.
  • Principles based: The “precautionary principle”, and the concept of common, but differentiated, responsibility took root in the Montreal Protocol when developing countries were given longer time to phase-out ODS.
  • Flexibility to accommodate newer information: This flexibility meant the protocol could be amended to include stricter controls: more ozone-depleting substances added to the control list and total phase-out, rather than partial phase-out, called for. Starting out modestly also encouraged a greater confidence in the process.
  • Trade Provisions and restrictions: These limited the signatories to trade only with other signatories. This increasingly limited the supplies of CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS) to non-signatories countries which forced them to ratify the Protocol.
  • Clear List of Targeted Sectors: The chemicals and sectors (refrigeration, primarily) involved are clearly articulated. This let governments prioritise the main sectors early.
  • Incentive to Industry: The Montreal Protocol also provided a stable framework that allowed industry to plan long-term research and innovation. Transitioning to newer, reasonably priced formulations with lower- or no-ozone depleting potential benefited the environment and industry.
  • Institutional Support: Another feature of the protocol has been the expert, independent Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (and its predecessors). These have helped signatories reach solid and timely decisions on often-complex matters. They have given countries confidence to start their transition.
  • The Multilateral Fund has been another reason for the protocol’s success.
    • It provides incremental funding for developing countries to help them meet their compliance targets.
    • Significantly, it has also provided institutional support. This helps countries build capacity within their governments to implement phase-out activities and establish regional networks so they can share experiences and learn from each other.

Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action | UPSC – IAS

Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action UPSC - IAS

Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action UPSC - IAS

Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action | UPSC – IAS

The Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action, established at the CoP22 (UNFCCC), aims to mobilize climate actions quickly and to reap the benefits in efficiency and effectiveness through partnerships and coordination between different actors.
It lists out some of the progressive steps taken and benefits of Climate action in the Yearbook of Global Climate Action 2018:

  • About 60 per cent of the initiatives are producing outputs that put them on a path to achieving their desired environmental or social outcomes.
  • The outputs from cooperative initiatives are increasingly being delivered in low- or middle-income countries. This reflects increased climate action in developing countries and increased international cooperation.
  • Climate action is re-shaping the financial sector to help transition to a net-zero carbon and resilient society. Businesses and investors are also reporting on and are managing climate risks and opportunities and implementing the Recommendations of the Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures (TCFD).
  • Increasingly mainstreaming of climate change into financial institutions’ operations and investment decisions. E.g. the green bond market. In 2018, the total value of climate-aligned bonds peaked at USD 1.45 trillion.

Nuclear Triad india – INS Arihant Submarine | UPSC – IAS

Nuclear Triad india - INS Arihant Submarine UPSC - IAS

Nuclear Triad india - INS Arihant Submarine UPSC - IAS

Nuclear Triad india – INS Arihant Submarine UPSC – IAS

The indigenous INS Arihant, India’s first nuclear-powered submarine successfully completed its first deterrence patrol, meaning that the submarine is fully ready for its role as a strategic deterrent.

Significance of Nuclear Triad | UPSC – IAS

  • With the completion of the patrol, India have finally achieved the longstanding ambition to have a nuclear triad, giving the country multiple options if it comes to a nuclear confrontation. Nuclear Triad
  • A nuclear triad refers to the three components of atomic weapons delivery: strategic bombers, intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs).
  • Of the three elements of the triad, the SLBMs are considered the most important because the nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine is the hardest to detect, track and destroy.
  • A nuclear triad gives a country the ability to launch nukes from land, air and sea. This is important, because if a country initiates a nuclear attack, it cannot destroy all three components of the triad at once, and thus, the component which is intact can launch a retaliatory strike.

Nuclear Triad india - INS Arihant Submarine UPSC IAS UPPSC UPPCS PCS

Uniqueness of each leg of Triad | UPSC – IAS

According to Undersea Warfare, the Official Magazine of the US submarine force, each leg of the triad contributes unique attributes that enhance deterrence and reduce risk.

  • ICBMs provide a prompt response, the potential to launch under attack, and a hardened, geographically-
    dispersed target base.
  • Strategic bombers provide great flexibility in force posturing, signalling intentions, route planning, and recall-ability.
  • Missile submarines provide survivable, assured response and the mobility to adapt missile over-flight to targets.

Why India needs a Nuclear Triad ? | UPSC – IAS

  • India’s ‘No first use’ nuclear policy (NFU) talks of minimum credible deterrence. Minimum credible deterrence capability would, however, require India to possess the critical capabilities to ensure the survivability of its nuclear weapons even after a first strike against it. NFU, therefore, casts a responsibility on the nation to achieve a second strike capability. A second strike capability can only be imparted by a Triad.
  • India has two nuclear-armed countries (China and Pakistan) on both its eastern and western fronts which makes it particularly imperative for the country to possess adequate deterrence.
  • The absence of INS Arihant came to attention during the Doka La standoff with China, when Beijing had flexed muscle in the Indian Ocean. The Indian Ocean Region, crucial for India’s strategic interests, has in general been witnessing an increasing presence of Chinese ships and submarines.
  • Chinese String of Pearls and Maritime Silk Road are attempting to create a Chinese monopoly in the Indian Ocean Region while encircling India from Myanmar to West Asia and Eastern Africa.
  • Pakistan last year tested its submarine-launched Babur missile, and in the process completed its nuclear triad, since it already possesses land-based ballistic missiles as well as tactical nuclear bombs that it can drop from its fighter aircraft.
  • India now joins the elite squad of countries like Russia, China, France, the US and the UK that possess nuclear-powered submarines. It is the first SSBN (Ship Submersible Ballistic Nuclear) to have been built by a country other than one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.

A Way forward | UPSC – IAS

  • More requirement of SSBN: According to the US Navy Institute, a continuous patrol requires a minimum of four SSBNs. This assumes one submarine is on patrol for, say, two to three months; another is in port on standby; while the third and fourth may be undergoing repairs or refits. In this context India needs to speed up its Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV) project to ensure timely delivery of SSBNs.
  • Complementary fleet to SSBN: India will require a complementary fleet of ship submersible nuclear (SSN) submarines – these are fast, hunter killer subs that will be required to detect and track Chinese and Pakistani undersea activity and warships. The Indian Navy plans to acquire as many as six SSNs, and discussions are on with shipbuilders from France and the US for participating in the project.
  • Nuclear Submarine Base: The Indian Navy has commenced Project Varsha – the construction of a massive nuclear submarine base south of Visakhapatnam. The base will house India’s SSBN fleet. The first phase of the project will be completed by 2022. Its timely completion is crucial for India’s Oceanic leg of Nuclear Triad.
  • Enhance the range of Missiles: The Arihant is equipped to carry twelve K-15 ballistic nuclear missiles with an abysmally short range of 750 km. This means before launching its missiles, the sub will have to venture close to enemy waters, endangering its own security. A 3,500 km range missile named the K-4 is currently in development. Apart from this, DRDO is also developing 5,000-km range K-5 and 6,000-km range K-6 which would add more teeth to the arsenal.

Petroleum, chemicals and Petrochemicals investment regions | UPSC

Why in news ?
Recently Minister of State for Chemicals & Fertilizers informed that Petroleum, Chemicals and Petrochemical Investment Regions (PCPIRs) in India has registered good progress in attracting Investments for Industrial Development and generating employment

petroleum chemicals and petrochemicals investment region UPSC IAS PCS UPPCS UPPSC

What is PCPIR ? (UPSC – IAS)

  • Petroleum, chemicals and Petrochemicals investment regions (PCPIR) is based on cluster-based development model for setting up manufacturing facilities for both domestic consumption and exports in Petroleum, Chemicals and Petrochemicals.
  • The cluster is combination of production units, logistics handling, environmental protection mechanism and
    social infrastructure.
  • It includes Special Economic Zones, Free Trade Zones Warehousing Zones etc.
  • Connectivity to the region is provided by state and central governments through Rail, Road, Ports, Airports and Telecom. The state government will also be responsible for providing facilities of water, road connectivity (state roads), Waste Treatments linkages etc
  • PCPIRs will ensure developing economy of scale in petrochemical sector due to the use of common infrastructure, support services and R&D facilities.
  • Chemical and Petrochemical industries generate concerns over environmental degradation. However, PCPIRs follow a robust Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) mechanism.

Blue Economy its Significance and Challenges | UPSC – IAS

Blue Economy upsc

Blue Economy upsc

Blue Economy and its Components | UPSC – IAS

As per the World Bank, Blue Economy is the sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods, and jobs while preserving the health of ocean ecosystem. It covers several sectors linked directly or indirectly to the oceans such as –

  • Fishing, minerals, shipping and port infrastructure,
  • Marine biotechnology,
  • Marine renewable energy,
  • Marine tourism,
  • Ocean governance and education.

Blue Economy its Significance and Challenges | UPSC - IAS

Significance of Blue economy | UPSC – IAS

Economic Benefits:

  • Oceans provide 30 percent of oil and gas resources.
  • 90% of goods trade takes place through Oceans Sea of Line Communication.
  • Ocean contributes $2.5 trillion to world economy with around 60 million people are employed in fisheries and aquaculture.
  • Seabed Mining of polymetallic nodules and polymetallic sulphides to extract nickel, cobalt, manganese and rare earth metals.

Environmental Benefits:

  • Mangroves and other vegetated ocean habitats sequester 25 percent of the extra CO2 from fossil fuels, i.e., Blue Carbon.
  • Protection of coastal communities from disasters like floods and storms.
  • A Sustainable Blue Economy can help to achieve commitments under UN’s Sustainable Development Goals 2030, Paris climate agreement 2015 and the UN Ocean Conference 2017.

Challenges to Blue Economy | UPSC – IAS

  • Unsustainable development near marine areas: Physical alterations and destruction of marine and coastal habitats & landscapes largely due to coastal development, deforestation, & mining.
  • FAO estimates that approximately 57 percent of fish stocks are fully exploited and another 30 percent are over-exploited, depleted, or recovering.
  • Marine pollution: It is in the form of excess nutrients from untreated sewerage, agricultural
    runoff, and marine debris such as plastics. Deep sea mining can cause long term irreversible ecological damage to marine ecosystem.
  • Impacts of climate change: Threats of both slow-onset events like sea-level rise and more intense and frequent weather events like cyclones. Long-term climate change impacts on ocean systems like changes in sea temperature, acidity, and major oceanic currents.
  • Geopolitical issues: Geopolitical tussle between in various regions like South China Sea, Indian Ocean Region etc. and undermining International Laws like UNCLOS limits the countries from achieving the full potential of Blue Economy.
  • Unfair trade practices: Many times fishing agreements allow access to an EEZ of country to foreign operators. These operators restrict transfer of specific fishing knowledge to national stakeholders leading to low appropriation of fisheries export revenues by national operators. So the potential for national exploitation of those resources is reduced in the long run.
  • Other non-conventional threats: Defense and security related threats like piracy and terrorism combined with natural disasters (Small Island Developing States are particularly vulnerable).

Blue economy and India  | UPSC – IAS

India is trying to achieve the potential of Blue Economy by promoting the spirit of ‘SAGAR-Security and Growth for All in the Region’ in Indian Ocean Region. Some initiatives by India are:  (important for UPSC)

Sagarmala Project: Sagarmala initiative focus on three pillars of development

  • Supporting and enabling Port-led Development through appropriate policy and institutional interventions.
    • Port Infrastructure Enhancement, including modernization and setting up of new ports.
    • Efficient Evacuation to and from hinterland by developing new lines/linkages for transport (including roads, rail, inland waterways and coastal routes).
  • Coastal Economic Zones: 14 CEZs are being developed under Sagarmala initiative covering all the Maritime States.
    • CEZs are spatial economic regions comprising of a group of coastal districts or districts with a strong linkage to the ports in that region.
    • CEZ will help to tap synergies of planned economic corridors.
  • Resource exploration: India in recent times has shifted its focus towards Indian Ocean resource exploration. E.g. India has explored 75000 sq km of Indian Ocean Seabed and is developing technologies (like remotely operated vehicles) for mining the resources
  • International relations and security: India is cooperating with Indian Ocean littoral countries and projecting itself as ‘net security provider’ to ensure a safe, secure and stable Indian Ocean Region (IOR). India is also cooperating with extra regional powers like US, Japan in IOR. E.g. Asia-Africa growth corridor, QUAD etc.

Sustainable Blue Economy Conference

  • It’s the first global conference on the sustainable blue economy.
  •  It was convened by Kenya and co-hosted Canada and Japan.

Credit Rating Agencies in India Problems & Solutions | UPSC IAS

Credit Rating Agencies in India Conflicts & Solutions UPSC IAS PCS UPPCS UPPSC

Credit rating agencies in India

  • The Securities and Exchange Board of India (Credit Rating Agencies) Regulations, 1999 empower SEBI to regulate CRAs operating in India.
  • All the credit agencies need to be registered with SEBI in order to operate in India.
  • There are seven Credit Rating Agencies registered with SEBI, viz. CRISIL, ICRA, CARE, India Ratings and Research, SMERA, Infomerics and Brickworks.

Significance of Credit rating agencies (UPSC IAS)

  • They provide retail and institutional investors with information that assists them in determining if debtor will be able to meet their obligations.
  • They help investors, customers etc. to get an overall idea of the strength and stability of an organization and enable them to make informed decisions.
  • These agencies also help build trust between the investors and the governments by quantifying the level of risk associated with investing in a particular country. For example-Sovereign credit ratings are given to the national governments which highlight a country’s economic and political environment.
  • CRAs help strengthening of secondary market by increasing borrower pool.
  • Credit ratings ensure a discipline amongst corporate borrowers due to because of this desire to have a good image.

Issues or Problems related with Credit Rating Agencies (UPSC IAS)

  • Conflict of interest: The CRA Regulations in India currently recognise only the issuer-pays model, under which, the rating agencies charge issuers of bond and debt instruments a fee for providing a ratings opinion. Thus, this model has an inbuilt conflict of interest.
  • Another example of conflict of interest is non-rating services such as risk consulting, funds research and advisory services given to issuers for which ratings have been provided.
  • Rating shopping: It is the practice of an issuer choosing the rating agency that will either assign the highest rating or that has the most lax criteria for achieving a desired rating. Hence, the system does not permit publishing a rating without the issuer’s consent.
  • Less competition: Credit-rating market in India is oligopolistic, with high barriers to entry. Lack of competition in the market enables CRAs to have longer, well- established relationships with the issuers which can hamper their independence.
  • Poor Rating Quality: Often ratings are provided on limited information. For e.g. If the issuer decides not to answer some determinant questions, the rating may be principally based on public information. Many rating agencies don’t have enough manpower which often leads to poor quality.
  • Independence of the ratings committee: Over the years, the membership of the ratings committee has shifted from external experts to employees of the ratings agency which has raised concerns about their independence.

Suggestions or Solutions for addressing these challenges  (UPSC IAS)

  • Removal of conflict of Interest: Moving back to the earlier “subscriber pays” model in which investors pay for the ratings can be a possible approach.
  • More Players: Rules should be made easier for new players to enter the credit rating space and compete against them.
  • Improve Quality of Ratings:
    • SEBI must also assess the predictive ability of the current rating models followed by the agencies. There is a need to invest in high-tech predictive modelling techniques.
    • Increased remuneration for manpower to attract the best talent must be ensured.
  • Cursory disclosure of all ratings: CRAs can be asked to provide briefly in their press release to the ratings given by other CRAs to the same borrower. This can help in discouraging “rating shopping”.
  • Legal protection for CRAs: There are instances of Indian CRAs being sued by the company it rates, in a bid to prevent the rating downgrade. The regulator should consider framing laws that allow CARs to express their rating opinion without fear of being sued.
  • Awareness among Investors: Investors should be made aware about the rating process and be asked to conduct a review by themselves too and stop relying solely on the ratings.
  • Rotation of rating agencies: SEBI can also explore the possibility of a mandatory rotation of rating agencies by the debt issuers (like corporations are required to change their auditors periodically under the Companies Act, 2013).

keywords: Problems & Solutions with credit rating agencies in india, UPSC IAS PCS.

Basel norms & Capital Adequacy Ratio | UPSC – IAS

Basel norms & Capital Adequacy Ratio | UPSC - IAS

Basel norms & Capital Adequacy Ratio | UPSC - IAS

Basel norms & Capital Adequacy Ratio | UPSC – IAS

Capital Adequacy Ratio is also known as Capital to Risk Assets Ratio, is the ratio of a bank’s capital to its risk. National regulators track a bank’s CAR to ensure that it can absorb a reasonable amount of loss and complies with statutory Capital requirements. It is a measure of a bank’s capital

Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR)

Capital adequacy ratio is the ratio which determines the bank’s capacity to meet the time liabilities and other risks such as credit risk, operational risk etc. In the most simple formulation, a bank’s capital is the “cushion” for potential losses, and protects the bank’s depositors and other lenders.

  • CAR = (Tier I + Tier II Capital)/Risk Weighted Assets
  • Expressed as a percentage of a bank’s risk weighted credit exposures.
  • Measure of bank’s financial strength to ensure that banks have enough cushions to absorb losses before becoming insolvent and losing depositors’ funds.
  • CAR is required to be 9% by RBI (based on BASEL III norms), where 7% has to be met by Tier 1 capital while the remaining 2% by Tier 2 capital.

Provisioning requirement

  • Setting aside a portion of profits, in proportion of risk weighted loans given, to compensate a probable loss due to incomplete loan recovery is called provisioning.
  • Like CCB & CAR requirements, provisioning is one of the contingency measures to contain risk.
  • Different types of assets have different risk profiles e.g. Government debt has 0% risk weight
  • A high-risk weight discourages lending by increasing the capital requirement for lenders.

Criticism of BASEL norms

  • Reserve bank of India, already has sufficient “backup” mechanisms to prevent banking crisis in India- such as Cash reserve ratio (CRR), Statutory liquidity ratio (SLR), all banks are required to make fortnightly reporting to RBI about their finance and operations and so on.

Capital Conservation Buffer & Basel 3 | RBI | UPSC – IAS

Capital Conservation Buffer & Basel 3 RBI UPSC - IAS

Capital Conservation Buffer & Basel 3 RBI UPSC - IAS

Capital Conservation Buffer & Basel 3 | RBI | UPSC – IAS

The capital conservation buffer (CCoB) is a capital buffer of 2.5% of a bank’s total exposures that needs to be met with an additional amount of Common Equity Tier 1 capital. The buffer sits on top of the 4.5% minimum requirement for Common Equity Tier 1 capital. Its objective is to conserve a bank’s capital. It is the mandatory capital that financial institutions are required to hold above minimum regulatory requirement.

  • According to Capital Conservation Buffer (CCB) norms, banks will be required to hold a buffer of 2.5% Risk Weighted Assets (RWAs) in the form of Common Equity, over and above Capital Adequacy Ratio of 9%.
  • Capital Conservation Buffer currently stands at 1.875% and remaining 0.625% was to be met by March 2019.

Significance of Capital Conservation Buffer | UPSC – IAS

  • It is designed to ensure that banks build up capital buffers outside periods of stress which can be drawn down, as losses are incurred.
  • Regulations targeting the creation of adequate capital buffers are designed to reduce the procyclical nature of lending by promoting the creation of countercyclical buffers as suggested Basel 3 norms. During credit expansion, banks have to set aside additional capital, while during the credit contraction, capital requirements can be loosened. Systemically important banks are subject to higher capital requirements.
  • The capital buffers increase the resilience of banks to losses, reduce excessive or underestimated exposures and restrict the distribution of capital. These macroprudential instruments limit systemic risks in the financial system.

Why banks are unable to adhere to Capital Conservation Buffer norms? | UPSC – IAS

  • Mounting pile of stressed assets has resulted into low credit growth, deterioration in asset quality, low profitability of Indian banks & over-reliance on capital infusion from the Government. In order to protect their margins & first meet the basic capital ratios i.e. CRAR of 9%, banks have slowed down the adoption of Capital Conservation Buffer (CCB) Basel 3 norms

A Way Forward | UPSC – IAS

While relaxation of the buffer norms and capital infusion by the government are welcome steps in the time of exigency, it must be ensured that good money is not thrown after bad money. Improving credit discipline and risk management systems are the need of the hour for public sector banks. The governance issues of the banks and their over-enthusiastic lending in the past needs to be addressed.
The government should initiate long-pending reforms recommended by the P.J. Nayak Committee:-

  • Cede control of nationalized banks and cut its stake below 51%.
  • Form an independent Banking Investment Company (BIC) for corporatized governance of PSBs.
  • Performance related pay structure and incentives for upper management functionaries.

Types of Bank Capital

  • Tier I capital (Core Capital): It consists of money kept as Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR), in physical cash form & as share capital and secured loans. At least 6% of CAR must come from Tier 1 capital. This capital can absorb losses without bank ceasing its trading operations.
  • Tier II capital (supplementary capital): It includes after tax income, retail earnings of the bank, capital in the form of bonds/hybrid instruments & unsecured loans (getting serviced).
  • Tier III capital: Includes Non-Performing Assets (NPAs), subordinated loans (not getting serviced) & undisclosed reserves from the balance sheet.

Keywords: RBI, UPSC, PCS, IAS, Capital Conservation Buffer rbi, basel 3 norms

Partial Credit Enhancement – NBFCs Bonds | UPSC – IAS

Partial Credit Enhancement – NBFCs Bonds | UPSC – IAS

The RBI recently allowed banks to provide partial credit enhancement (PCE) to bonds issued by systemically important non-deposit taking NBFCs registered with the RBI and Housing Finance Companies (HFCs) registered with the National Housing Bank.

  • Provide partial credit enhancement or Credit enhancement means improving the credit rating of a corporate bond. For example, if a bond is rated BBB, credit enhancement, which is basically an assurance of repayment by another entity, can improve the rating to AA. This is done to provide an additional source of assurance or guarantee to service the bond.

The move comes at a time when NBFCs and HFCs have requested the government and regulators to ensure that confidence returns to the market.

  • FACT: Provide partial credit enhancement (PCE), which was introduced in 2015, is expected to help NBFCs and HFCs raise money from insurance and provident or pension funds who invest only in highly-rated instruments.

Current problems with NBFCs | UPSC – IAS

  • Multiple regulatory bodies: RBI doesn’t regulate all the NBFC. Other institutions such as NHB (National Housing Bank), SEBI, Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority (IRDAI), etc. are also involved depending on the type of NBFC.

Difficulties in access to credit

  • There is a reversal of interest rate cycle as interest rates are now going up both domestically and also in the
    international market. The RBI has steadily hiked interest rates in the recent months.
  • Another fundamental issue is the asset-liability mismatch in the operations of NBFCs as these firms borrow funds from the market — say for 3 or 5 years — and lend for longer tenures — 10 to 15 years. It has led to a situation where the NBFCs are facing a severe liquidity crunch in the short term.
  • The mutual fund is among the biggest fund provider to NBFCs via commercial papers and debentures. These investors are getting reluctant to lend post the IL&FS crisis.

Significance of NBFC DIGITALLY LEARN IAS UPSC PCS UPPCS UPPSC.

(UPSC IAS)

Riskier Lending Pattern:

  • Unlike banks, NBFCs are less cautious while lending. For example NBFCs have grown their portfolio of small and micro loans in a big way where there are risks of lack of credit history, scale and historically high NPAs.
  • The unsecured loan segment is also on the rise in the NBFC segment.
  • Cascading effect of Infrastructure Leasing and Financial Services (IL&FS) default: Default followed by downgrade of IL&FS recently has created a liquidity squeeze for the entire non-banking financial company (NBFC) sector.
  • Delayed Projects: Many infrastructure projects financed by NBFCs are stalled due to various reasons like delayed statutory approvals, problems of land acquisition, environmental clearance, etc. which has impacted their financial health.

Suggestions and Solutions | UPSC – IAS

  • RBI must encourage non-banking financial companies to securitise their assets that can be purchased by banks.
  • RBI must revisit lending restrictions placed on banks under Prompt Corrective Action and consider allowing them lending to NHB.
  • RBI may also open special window for mutual funds to get refinance against collateral.
  • A coordinated and consultative approach at this point of time to address the various problems of the sector is critical to national economic health and stability.

Keywords: Provide partial credit enhancement (PCE), NBFCs, RBI, UPSC IAS

First Human Capital Index – 2018 Released by World Bank | UPSC

First Human Capital Index - 2018 Released by World Bank | UPSC IAS UPPCS UPPSC SSC CGL RAILWAY
The Human Capital Index measures the amount of human capital that a child born today can expect to attain by age 18. It conveys the productivity of the next generation of workers compared to a benchmark of complete education and full health.
  • HCI is part of the World Development Report (WDR).
  • As part of this report, the World Bank has launched a Human Capital Project (HCP).
Human Capital Project (HCP): A program of advocacy, measurement, and analytical work to raise awareness and increase demand for interventions to build human capital. The Human Capital Index has three components:
  • Cross-country metric—the Human Capital Index (HCI).
  • Program of measurement and research to inform policy action.
  • Program of support for country strategies to accelerate investment in human capital.

What are the Findings ?

  • Global Performance: Singapore topped the list while, India was placed at 115th position out of 157 countries, lower than neighboring Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Bangladesh.
First Human Capital Index - 2018 Released by World Bank UPSC IAS UPPCS UPPSC BPSC

State Of Human Capital In India (UPSC IAS)

  • Human Capital Index: A child born in India today will be 44 % as productive when she grows up as she could be if she enjoyed complete education and full health.
  • Probability of Survival to Age 5: 96 out of 100 children born in India survive to age 5.
  • Expected Years of School: In India, a child who starts school at age 4 can expect to complete 10.2 years of school by her 18th birthday.
  • Harmonized Test Scores: Students in India score 355 on a scale where 625 represents advanced attainment and 300 represents minimum attainment.
  • Learning-adjusted Years of School: Factoring in what children actually learn, expected years of school is only 5.8 years.
  • Adult Survival Rate: Across India, 83 % of 15-year olds will survive until age 60. This statistic is a proxy for the range of fatal and non-fatal health outcomes that a child born today would experience as an adult under current conditions.
  • Healthy Growth (Not Stunted Rate): 62 out of 100 children are not stunted. 38 out of 100 children are stunted, and so at risk of cognitive and physical limitations that can last a lifetime.

Relation between India and APEC | UPSC – IAS

Relation between India and APEC UPSC - IAS

Established in 1989 APEC is an inter-governmental forum for 21 Pacific Rim member economies. APEC aims for regional economic integration by promoting balanced, inclusive, sustainable growth.

Fact: India was allowed in APEC summit in 2011 as an observer state.

Although India has been attempting to join APEC since 1993, but still has not got the membership as:

  • India’s geographical location isn’t conducive for India’s membership in APEC as India does not border the Pacific Ocean.
  • Some APEC members have expressed concerns that India’s inclusion could shift the focus of the grouping away from its Pacific Rim.
  • India’s economic policies are generally considered as protectionist and inward which is considered against the liberalized and free market principles of APEC.
  • India’s record in trade negotiations, bilaterally as well as in the World Trade Organization (WTO), has made some APEC economies concerned that including India would slow momentum for achieving the forum’s objectives
  • In 1997 a moratorium on membership was put in place for a ten-year period which was extended further till 2010. However currently there is no moratorium on membership.

Why India belongs to APEC?

Economic angle:

  • Size of Economy: India is 6th largest economy of World and 3rd largest economy of Asia. Also as the world’s fastest-growing major economy, India represents a significant long-term source of growth for the world economy. This mandates an economy based forum such as APEC to take cognizance of India.
  • Opportunities in India: India is projected to be the world’s third largest economy by 2030 and will need well over $1 trillion of investment in infrastructure over the next decade. Its burgeoning middle class, estimated to number 450 million in 2030, will offer huge opportunities for APEC countries which are experiencing sluggish growth.
  • Changed Conditions: At the time of inception of APEC (1989), India had not liberalized and was out of sync of APEC economic principles. However, India starting from 1991 has liberalized and India’s trade stands at 40% of GDP now. India even has extensive trade relations with all the APEC member economies.
  • Strengthening Economic Integration: Emerging trade regimes could create gaps between the standards and policies adopted by their members and those pursued by non-members. By including a key economy such as India, APEC can play a constructive role by helping bridge such gaps.
  • Alternative to China: For APEC members, greater integration with India could offer an alternative source for manufacturing goods. Also India’s large labor market (largest in the world by 2030), will help offset the impact of aging populations and shrinking work forces in APEC economies and offers advantages for sourcing services — in IT, financial services, etc.

Strategic angle:

  • Strategic Balance: Inclusion of India could bring a strategic balance and ease the tension within the grouping. India’s record of Non Alignment could bring confidence among the smaller members of APEC amid the impasse between USA and China. Especially, joint efforts of Japan, India and Australia could reduce tension between US and China.
  • Political counterweight to China: As a major power in the Indian Ocean, India could provide a balancing counterweight to China for smaller Asian countries that may be wary of the alternative hard stand provided by the US.
  • New Indo-Pacific policy of USA: USA under Trump regime has changed the view of Asia Pacific to Indo-Pacific. Inclusion of India in APEC is in coherence with the new approach of US in the region

Benefits to India (UPSC IAS)

  • Act East Policy: For further strengthening of economic ties of India East and Southeast Asia through higher trade volumes and greater physical connectivity, APEC membership streamlines the process by standardizing the trade related negotiations.
  • Creating Synergy: Through its processes and guidelines, APEC will facilitate India’s implementation of the economic reforms, boost competitiveness and the ease of doing business. APEC membership would also help India prepare for potential inclusion in emerging trade agreements such as TPP (now CPTPP), if India considers joining these in the future.
  • Economic Growth: India’s current economic program relies on greater access to foreign markets, investment sources, and value chains to bolster manufacturing and create jobs at home.
  • India-US Relations: Supporting India’s APEC bid would demonstrate an American commitment to help strategic partner India gain the greater role in institutions of global governance.

A Way forward (Important for UPSC IAS)

  • Diplomatic investment: To gain support of its candidacy of APEC, India needs to work diplomatically with key members like United States and Japan. Also, India could ask China, Korea, Australia, and Vietnam to provide vocal support and diplomatic resources to India’s cause.
  • Extensive Study before inclusion: APEC could commission studies assessing the benefits and costs of Indian accession which will help its members to develop consensus on the question of Indian membership.
  • Transitional membership: Before providing full membership of APEC a transitional membership could be provided. Transitional memberships could gradually integrate India in ways that satisfy current members and allow India to benefit from APEC’s processes and technical support.

India and United States of America – Trade International Relations UPSC

India and United States of America - Trade International Relations UPSC

India and United States of America - Trade International Relations UPSC

India and United States of America – Trade International Relations | UPSC –  IAS

What is Generalized System of Preferences ?

It is a non-reciprocal preferential tariff system which provides for exemption from the Most Favored Nation principle of World Trade Organization. It involves reduced MFN tariffs or duty free entry of eligible products exported by beneficiary countries (developed countries) to markets of donor countries (developing countries).

  • Generalized System of Preferences (GSP)  measure was adopted at UNCTAD Conference in 1968 and later enacted by General Agreement on Trade and Tariff (now WTO) in 1971.
  • The objective of Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) was to give development support to poor countries by promoting capacity development and trade.
  • 11 Developed countries including the USA, EU, UK, Japan etc., extend GSPs to imports from developing countries.
  • U.S. has a particularly strong Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) regime, under Trade Act, 1974. India has been the largest beneficiary of the GSP. In 2017, India’s duty-free export to the US under the GSP was more than $5.6 billion.
  • Now, 50 products (out of a total of 94 products) from India have been removed from GSP particularly impacting handloom and agriculture sectors.

Impact of Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) withdrawal on India

  • Impact on Current Account Deficit (CAD) and rupee: GSP withdrawal will cost India $70 million in raised duties from GSP benefits. It will reduce the trade surplus that
    India has against trade with US leading to higher CAD which also runs the risk of further weakening rupee.
  • Impact on MSME and agriculture: Small and medium size business could be impacted. Especially export of handloom made home textiles products are expected to be affected

India -USA International Trade Relations  

  • U.S. goods and services trade with India totaled an estimated $126.2 billion in 2017. (exports-$76.7 billion & imports- $49.9 billion, Trade deficit- $27.5 billion)
  • USA foreign direct investment (FDI) in India was USD $44.5 billion in 2017.

Major Impediments in trade relations | UPSC – IAS

Tariff issues

US under Trump regime has taken different position as compared to previous stands in trade negotiations. US President called India “the tariff king” and raised issues with India like:

    • Indian motorcycles imported into the US tariff free while US motorcycles imported to India face high tariffs.
    • Intellectual property rights: India has been placed in Priority Watch List of the USTR Special 301.

Subsidies issues:

    • Subsidies given by some US states to local renewable energy producers.
    • USA is against the Minimum Support Price (MSP) regime of India and accuse India of violating WTO subsidies norms and limitations.

 Visa related tensions:

  • India is the largest beneficiary of H1-B visa scheme of US. But US in recent times has increased visa fees for H1B visa applicants and cut their quotas. This has been detrimental for the interest of Indian IT companies. India has raised concerns on this issue.

India – USA have been also engaged WTO in dispute resolution

  • India dragged the USA to the WTO dispute settlement mechanism over the imposition of import duties on steel and aluminium. Also, India and US are at loggerheads on subsidies and Domestic Content Requirement (DCR) provisions to renewable energy sector in their respective countries.

A Way Forward | UPSC – IAS

Unlike USA-China there is no trade war between India and US but tension do exist in trade relations.

  • India is not in position to engage in tit-for-tat approach in raising tariffs like China. India needs cooperation of US in many other sectors like defense, technology transfers, regional security (strategic relationship).
  • USA has granted some relief to India in recent times. US has granted Strategic Trade Authorization (STA-1) status to India, giving India same access as NATO allies to latest technology. Also India is among the eight countries to get exemption from US in purchasing oil from Iran even though Trump administration has imposed its “toughest ever” sanctions against Iran This is an indication of US seeking deeper strategic ties with India.
  • India should stay the course in its current approach to trade negotiations while not reacting to rhetorical moves by US, preventing any escalations and also avoiding the spilling of friction in trade relations to other areas of relations.
  • India should continue negotiating for a trade package with the US, and demand a waiver on tariff hikes similar to the ones granted to Argentina, Brazil and South Korea.
  • India needs to boost exports and cut non-essential imports in the backdrop of its current account deficit (CAD) touching 2.4%.

India – Australia International Relations | UPSC – IAS

India - Australia International Relations UPSC - IAS

India - Australia International Relations UPSC - IAS

India – Australia International Relations | UPSC – IAS

Australia Prime Minister has announced implementation of “An India Economic Strategy to 2035”, a vision document that will shape India- Australia bilateral ties.

  • A three-pillar strategy- The focus of this report is on building a sustainable long-term India economic strategy. The report identifies 10 sectors and 10 states in an evolving Indian market where Australia has competitive advantages, and where it should focus its efforts. These are divided into a flagship sector (education), three lead sectors (agribusiness, resources, and tourism) and six promising sectors (energy, health, financial services, infrastructure, sport, science and innovation).

First Pillar – Economic Ties

India is already in the first tier of Australia’s diplomatic relations. It has been a high foreign policy priority for at least two decades. But the economic relationship is stuck in the second tier. This vision thus focuses on upgrading ties into full blown economic partnership.

  • Building on India’s Economic Rise- Over the past decade and a half, India’s economic growth, its appetite for resources, energy demand, skill development, technical know how and investments have made it an important trade partner and export destination for Australia.
  • Therefore, this strategic vision aims at capturing this rise of India economy. India’s growing economic weight makes it an unavoidable economic partner, despite the challenges in navigating its market. Australian exports to India are expected to grow from 14.9 billion dollars in 2017 to around 45 billion dollars in the next 20 year, and Australian investment to India rise from 10.3 billion dollars to over the 100-billion mark, reflecting a transformational expansion of the relationship. This investment will be spread over various sectors like resources, education, infrastructure etc.
  • The core of the trade ties are energy resources and now Australia is moving forward in providing assured Uranium supply under Civil Nuclear Cooperation agreement which is important for India’s energy security and economic growth.

Second Pillar-Geostrategic Engagement

  • Indo-Pacific – A global Strategic region- Recently there is a shift to Indo pacific which is becoming a centre of economic and strategic gravity. With a high volume of seaborne trade passing through the Strait of Malacca, the Straits of Singapore and the Gulf of Hormuz, the region has become a theatre of competing claims and power plays. India and Australia enjoy strategic position in Indo-pacific and therefore are natural allies in the region.
  • Preserving the status quo- Both Australia and India support a rules based international order which currently is under increasing threat. Its defenders are shrinking and its challengers growing.
  • Chinese revisionism- China is continuously revising its power in the region. Blatant disregard for international law, construction of artificial islands, an active defence strategy weaponizing capital and trade, and adoption of a military posture that seeks to keep other powers out from parts of the western Pacific is disturbing the balance of power in the. It provides India and Australia an opportunity to be net security providers thereby ensuring rebalancing.
  • Ambiguous American leadership- Though during the Indo-Pacific Business Forum US laid out a partnership based economic engagement in Indo pacific to reassure friends but still the countries have reservations about its America first policy.

Third pillar-Rethinking Culture-thrust on soft power diplomacy

  • In the last decade a large scale has been witnessed in the Indian Diaspora in Australia which now constitute 700,000 strong and the fastest growing large Diaspora in Australia. This Diaspora can play a big role to enhance the partnership by creating personal links, in business, arts, education, politics and civil society.

Concerns are as follows:-

  • Dichotomous Australian Foreign Policy- Historically, a key problem with Australia’s bilateral relationships has been the misalignment of Australia’s economic and political-security interests. While Australia is reliant on the US for its defence and security through the Australia-New Zealand-US treaty, its economy depends on China, which accounts for a huge share in bilateral trade and investment.
  • Challenges of Indian Economy- India is too complicated for its growth story to be linear. Canberra has skepticism about India’s economic progress which is constrained by the political compromises demanded by a diverse democratic federation, held back by thinly resourced institutions, burdened by a interfering bureaucracy, dented by corruption and shaped by a political tradition which puts much greater faith in government intervention than the efficiency of markets.
  • Trade implications for India- India and Australia are “too far apart” to conclude the bilateral Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) in the near term.
  • Perception of Indo pacific– There is no coherent Indo pacific strategy as countries do not have one definitive vision for the region. It is largely seen as global construct to arrest China’s rise.

A Way forward

  • India-Australia needs to formulate a comprehensive shared Indo pacific vision which ensures inclusivity, transparency, openness and a rule based order.
  • India has to remove various governance bottlenecks and ensure speedy engagement. CECA need to be concluded immediately in order to realize the untapped trade potential.
  • Both sides should share the benefits of increased cooperation equally.

India & European union Political International Relations | UPSC – IAS

India & European union Political International Relations UPSC

India & European union Political International Relations UPSC

India & European union Political International Relations | UPSC – IAS

The European Union has unveiled a ‘strategy paper’ outlining the broad roadmap for accelerating cooperation with India in a range of key sectors.

What does the strategy paper focus on?

Strategic Partnership

  • It focuses on developing military-to-military relations under which deploying an EU military advisor in the EU Delegation in New Delhi and vice-versa is being considered.
  • It will focus on negotiation of a broader contemporary Strategic Partnership Agreement supplanting 1994 EU-India Cooperation Agreement and intensify dialogue on Afghanistan and Central Asia.
  • Also supports strengthening technical cooperation on fighting terrorism, countering radicalization, violent extremism and terrorist financing.

Maritime cooperation-

  • Efforts will be made to identify common interests of both at policy and operational levels to enhance maritime security.
  • It will focus on working with India and other key regional players such as South Africa to help build the capacity of maritime nations in the Indian Ocean and East Africa

Renewed focus on trade

  • India and EU since 2007 are unable to strike a free trade agreement called Bilateral Trade and Investment Agreement (BTIA) due to incoherent interest of both.
  • The European Union (EU) now is looking at reworking the proposed free trade pact with India called the Broad Based BTIA in a post-Brexit scenario.
  • Though the strategy paper did not mention BTIA, but it aims to negotiate a “balanced, ambitious and mutually beneficial” free trade agreement (FTA) with sufficient level of ambition to respond to each side’s key interests in trade and investment.

Political Partnership

This includes reinforcing cooperation on foreign policy, promoting effective multilateralism and building on common values and objectives.

Why this immediate thrust?

  • After the promising beginnings in 2000s, the EU-India partnership lost its momentum as it largely focused on trade and cultural rather than broad strategic and political issues.
  • Europe’s main focus earlier was on China as its key partner and market in Asia while India viewed Europe largely as a trade bloc.
  • But now the new strategic and power realities have pushed the two towards each other.

Chinese Challenge

    • China’s increasing presence in Eurasia and South Asia is creating similar security, political and economic concerns for Europe and India. Both are driven by the need to diversify its partnerships and balance.

BREXIT- a new opportunity

  • Both EU and India can seize an opportunity to work without Britain. Brexit is pushing India to look for new ‘gateways’ to Europe, as its traditional partner leaves the union. A renewed trade and political cooperation are the need of the hour.
  • Fall of the conventional Liberal Trade Order-
    • Trade war, crumbling WTO and break down of TPP etc has made EU understand the economic importance of India.
    • Also for India, EU is one of the largest trading partner (13.5% of India’s overall trade with the world in 2015-16), well ahead of China (10.8%), USA (9.3%), UAE (7.7%) and Saudi Arabia (4.3%).
    • India is the EU’s 9th trading partner in 2016 (2.2% of EU’s overall trade with the world), after South Korea (2.5%) and ahead of Canada (1.9%).
    • With the rise of protectionism by USA, both have opportunity to increase the trade.

Conclusion

  • The EU sees a larger role of India in the regional (Asian) and global security- economic architecture therefore is working on a new strategy with respect to India.
  • Indian multi-alignment approach has made room for reviving India-EU partnership while rebalancing power relations in Eurasia has pushed Europe to carve out its own Asia policy. Hitherto Europe-India partnership was all about trade but now it is finally shifting to a strategic one.

Dissolution of state assembly by Governor – Article | UPSC – IAS

Constitutional provisions of - Dissolution of state assembly article

Constitutional provisions of - Dissolution of state assembly article

Dissolution of state assembly by Governor – Article | UPSC – IAS

Constitutional provisions of – Dissolution of state assembly article

  • Article 172 says that every Legislative Assembly of every State, unless sooner dissolved, shall continue for five years.
  • Article 174 (2) (b) of the Indian Constitution merely states that the Governor may, from time to time, dissolve the Legislative Assembly.
  • Article 356 (“President’s rule”): In case of failure of constitutional machinery in State the President, on receipt of report from the Governor of the State or otherwise,
    • May assume to himself the functions of the Government of the State
    • Declare that the powers of the Legislature of the State shall be exercisable by or under the authority of Parliament
  •  With Respect to J&K Constitution: The powers under Section 92 (failure of constitutional machinery) and Section 52 (provides for dissolution of assembly) were invoked for this move.

Issues related to Dissolution Powers | UPSC – IAS

  • Lack of Objective Criteria for untimely dissolution: While Article 174 gives powers to the governor to dissolve the assembly, but the Constitution is silent on as to when and under what circumstances can the House can be dissolved.
  • Political reasons being cited for Dissolution: Potential for political instability in the future being cited as a reason in J&K to prevent emerging alliances is undemocratic in nature.
  • Moreover, describing an alliance as opportunistic is fine as far as it is political opinion but it cannot be the basis for constitutional action.

Missing Political Neutrality in Governor’s Office | UPSC – IAS

  • The post has been reduced to becoming a retirement package for politicians for being politically faithful to the government of the day. Consequently, the office has been used by various governments at the centre as a political tool to destabilise elected state governments.
  • For e.g. Bihar State Assembly was dissolved by the governor in 2005 on apprehensions of “horse trading. Later the Supreme Court called the decision to be illegal and mala fide.

Suggestions on Dissolution of state assembly | UPSC – IAS

Sarkaria Commission

    • The state assembly should not be dissolved unless the proclamation is approved by the parliament.
    • Sparing use of article 356 of the constitution should be made.
    • All possibilities of formation of an alternative government must be explored before imposing president’s rule in the state.

M M Punchhi Commission

    • The governor should follow “constitutional conventions” in a case of a hung Assembly.
    • It suggested a provision of ‘Localized Emergency’ by which the centre government can tackle issue at town/district level without dissolving the state legislative assembly

Supreme Court Judgements related to dissolution | UPSC – IAS

Bommai case of 1994

    • The court accorded primacy to a floor test as a check of majority.
    • The court also said that the power under Article 356 is extraordinary and must be used wisely and not for political gain.

Rameshwar Prasad case (2006)

    • Bihar Governor’s recommendation for dissolving the Assembly the previous year was held to be illegal and mala fide
    • A Governor cannot shut out post-poll alliances altogether as one of the ways in which a popular government may be formed.
    • The court had also said unsubstantiated claims of horse-trading or corruption in efforts at government formation cannot be cited as reasons to dissolve the Assembly

Question: – The governor of the state can dissolve the legislature true or false or the governor can dissolve the legislative council of a state

Answer:- Yes, Governor can dissolve the Legislative Assembly if a motion of no confidence in the Premier and the other Ministers of State is passed.

None of the above (NOTA) Vote & its Significance? | UPSC

None of the above (NOTA) Vote & its Significance? | UPSC

None of the above (NOTA) Vote & its Significance? | UPSC

None of the above (NOTA) Vote & its Significance? | UPSC – IAS

It was introduced in India following the 2013 Supreme Court directive. It is an option the voting machine, designed to allow voters to disapprove all the candidates while delivering their vote. However,

  • NOTA in India does not provide for a ‘right to reject’. The candidate with the maximum votes wins the election irrespective of the number of NOTA votes polled.
  • The NOTA votes have not been accounted while calculating votes polled by candidates for making them eligible (1/6th of valid votes) for getting back their security deposits.
  • An Association of Democratic Reforms analysis says that since 2013 till March 2018, NOTA has secured a total of 1.33 crores votes from all assemblies and Lok Sabha polls combined.
  • Election Commission currently has no plenary power to call a fresh election even if NOTA secures highest votes.
  • To give greater sanctity to NOTA and even order a fresh election, Rule 64 of Conduct of Election Rules will have to be amended and can be done by the law ministry. It will not require Parliament sanction

Significance of re-elections in India

  • Freedom of expression: NOTA emanates from our fundamental right of ‘Right to liberty’ and ‘Freedom of Expression’ as it gives a way for the voter to register her consent or discontent for candidates chosen by the political parties.
  • Advantage for democracy: Participation of people is one of the crucial pillars of democracy thus in exercising the NOTA the voter is participating in the electoral process while not abstaining from voting altogether.
  • Improvement of democracy: There is an opaqueness in the selection process of the candidates chosen for representing a political party, with nepotism, favoritism and money power being the driving force. It gives voters an opportunity to express their dissent and may also force parties to field better candidates known for their integrity.

Challenges of conducting fresh election in India

  • Increase of Financial Pressure: Fresh elections lead to massive expenditures by Government as it has to conduct re-election which put extra pressure on the public exchequer.
  • Disruption of democracy: It leads to frequent elections which results in disruption of normal public life and impact the functioning of essential services.
  • Administrative pressure: Election Commission of India has to take help of a significant number of polling officials as well as armed forces to ensure smooth, peaceful and impartial polls.
  • Governance: Conducting fresh election impacts development programs and governance due to imposition of Model Code of Conduct by the Election Commission.

Breach of privilege Motion UPSC – Indian Polity

Breach of privilege Motion UPSC - Indian Polity IAS PCS

Recently in News Because: 

  • Claiming they had misled Parliament on the Rafale fighter jet deal issue, a breach of privilege motion was moved against Prime Minister and Defence Minister.
  • A claim of ‘breach of privilege’ was raised against chairman of the Parliamentary Standing Committee on finance, for “lowering the dignity and ethics of the Finance Committee” by tweeting about the committee’s deliberations

Concept of privileges and types of privileges

The concept of privileges emerged from the British House of Commons when a nascent  British Parliament started to protect its sovereignty from excesses of the monarch.

The Constitution (under Art. 105 for Parliament, its members & committees /Art.  194 for State Legislature, its members & committees) confers certain  privileges on legislative institutions and their members to:

  • Protect freedom of speech and expression in the House and insulates them against  litigation over matters that occur in these houses
  • Protect against any libel through speeches, printing or publishing
  • Ensure their functioning without undue influence, pressure or coercion
  • Ensure sovereignty of Parliament
  • Currently, there is no law that codifies all the privileges of the  legislators in India. Privileges are based on five sources: i) Constitutional provisions ii)  Various laws of parliament (iii) Rules of both the houses iv) Parliamentary  conventions v) Judicial interpretations
  • Whenever any of these rights and immunities is
  • Exclude strangers from proceedings. Hold a secret sitting of the legislature
  • Freedom of press to publish true reports of Parliamentary proceedings. But, this  does not in case of secret sittings
  • Only Parliament can make rules to regulate its own proceedings
  • There is a bar on court from making inquiry into proceedings of the house (speeches,  votes etc.) Individual
  • No arrest during session and 40 days before and 40 days after the session. Protection available  only in civil cases and not in criminal cases
  • Not liable in court for any speech in parliament
  • Exempted from jury service when the house is in session.

Committee on Privileges

  • Standing committee constituted in each house of the Parliament/state legislature.
  • Consists of 15 members in Lok Sabha (LS) and 10 members in Rajya Sabha (RS) to be nominated by the Speaker in LS and Chairman in RS.
  • Its function is to investigate the cases of breach of privilege and recommend appropriate action
    to the Speaker/Chairperson. disregarded, the offence is called a breach of privilege and is punishable under law of Parliament.  However, there are no objective guidelines on what constitutes breach of privilege and what  punishment it entails.

Following procedure is followed in privilege cases:

  • A notice is moved in the form of a motion by any member of either house against those being  held guilty of breach of privilege.
  • The Speaker/ Rajya Sabha chairperson is the first level of scrutiny of a privilege motion.  They can take a decision themselves or refer it to the privileges committee of  parliament. Privilege committee in Parliament as well as in state legislatures decides upon such  cases.
  • An inquiry is conducted by the committee and based on findings a recommendation  is made to the legislature.
  • A debate can be initiated on the report in the House and based on the discussion, the Speaker  can order the punishment as defined by the privileges committee.

Archipelagic & Territorial waters, and Contiguous zone | UPSC

INS kohassa - India’s fourth Air Station UPSC IAS Gk today

Different Areas under UNCLOS III :Internal waters

Covers all water and waterways on the landward side of the baseline. The coastal state is free to set laws, regulate use, and use any resource. Foreign vessels have no right of passage within internal waters.

Territorial waters :

  • Out to 12 nautical miles from the baseline, the coastal state is free to set laws, regulate use, and use any resource.
  • Vessels were given the right of innocent passage through any territorial waters, with strategic straits allowing the passage of military craft as transit passage, in that naval vessels are allowed to maintain postures that would be illegal in territorial waters.
  • “Innocent passage” is defined by the convention as passing through waters in an expeditious and continuous manner, which is not “prejudicial to the peace, good order or the security” of the coastal state.
  • Fishing, polluting, weapons practice, and spying are not “innocent“, and submarines and other underwater vehicles are required to navigate on the surface and to show their flag. Nations can also temporarily suspend innocent passage in specific areas of their territorial seas, if doing so is essential for the protection of its security.

Archipelagic waters :

  • The convention defines how the state can draw its territorial borders.
  • A baseline is drawn between the outermost points of the outermost islands, subject to these points being sufficiently close to one another.
  • All waters inside this baseline are designated Archipelagic Waters.
  • The state has full sovereignty over these waters (like internal waters), but foreign vessels have right of innocent passage through archipelagic waters (like territorial waters).

Contiguous zone :

Contiguous zone is 24 nautical miles from the territorial sea baseline in which a state could continue to enforce laws in four specific areas: pollution, taxation, customs, and immigration.

What are the factors affecting the salinity of the sea water ? | UPSC – IAS

salinity describe the general distribution of salinity in the oceans UPSC IAS factors affecting salinity of ocean water

salinity describe the general distribution of salinity in the oceans UPSC IAS factors affecting salinity of ocean water

[ Image explanation – Lowest salinity (violet and blue areas) is found in areas of freshwater runoff, such as the mouths of rivers, and where rainfall is high (as in the ITCZ); highest salinity (red and yellow) is found where evaporation rates are highest.]

Factors affecting the salinity of the sea or ocean water | UPSC – IAS

The salinity of ocean water is a measure of the concentration of dissolved salts, which are mostly – sodium chloride but also include salts containing magnesium, sulfur, calcium, and potassium. The average salinity of seawater is about 35 parts per thousand, or 3.5 percent of total mass.

  • The geographic distribution of surface salinity varies. At any given location on the ocean surface, the salinity depends on how much evaporation is taking place and how much freshwater (primarily from rainfall and stream discharge) is being added.

What are the two factors that affect the salinity of ocean water ?

  • The salinity of Ocean water in the surface layer of oceans depend mainly on evaporation and precipitation.
  • Evaporation of ocean water and formation of sea ice both increase the salinity of the ocean.
  • However these “salinity raising” factors are continually counter-balanced by the processes that decrease salinity such as the continuous input of fresh water from, precipitation of – rain, rivers & snow.

Note – Where the evaporation rate is high, so is salinity; where the inflow of freshwater is high, salinity is low

  • Surface salinity is greatly influenced in coastal regions by the freshwater flow from rivers, and in polar regions by the processes of freezing and thawing of ice.
  • Wind, also influences salinity of an area by transferring water to other areas.
  • The ocean currents contribute to the salinity variations. Salinity, temperature and density of water are interrelated. Hence, any change in the temperature or density influences the salinity of an area.

Highest and Lowest Salinity of Ocean Water | UPSC – IAS

Typically the lowest salinities are found where rainfall is heavy and near the mouths of major rivers. Salinity is highest in partly landlocked seas in dry, hot regions because here the evaporation rate is high and stream discharge is minimal.

As a general pattern, salinity is low in equatorial regions because of heavy rainfall, cloudiness, and humidity, all of which inhibit evaporation, and also because of considerable river discharge. Salinity rises to a general maximum in the subtropics, where precipitation is low and evaporation extensive, and decreases to a general minimum in the polar regions, where evaporation is minimal and there is considerable inflow of freshwater from rivers and ice caps. Where the evaporation rate is high, so is salinity; where the inflow of freshwater is high, salinity is low

Note – Atlantic ocean is saltiest out of all oceans

  • Surface waters in the Atlantic have the highest salinity, higher than 37 parts per thousand in some areas. This is because, on average, there is more evaporation than combined rainfall and river runoff into the Atlantic Ocean, maintaining higher salinity than in the other basins.
  • Effects of ocean salinity – Although ocean salinity does vary from place to place, the variability of dissolved salt is very small: from about 32 parts per thousand to about 37 parts per thousand. Nonetheless, this small variation can have a massive influence on ocean circulation.

Salinity of Ocean water Affects Ocean Water Density | UPSC – IAS

  • Seawater density varies with temperature, degree of salinity, and depth. High temperature produces low density, and high salinity produces high density. Deep water has high density because of low temperature and because of the pressure of the overlying water.
  • Surface layers of seawater tend to contract and sink in cold regions, whereas in warmer areas deeper waters tend to rise to the surface.
  • Surface currents also affect this situation, particularly by producing an upwelling of colder, denser water in some localities. As we will see later in this chapter, differences in density are partially responsible for a vast, slow circulation of deep ocean water.

Salinity of freshwater | UPSC – IAS

  • Salinity of freshwater is nearly equal to zero. The salinity of water in the ocean averages about 35 parts per thousand (ppt). The mixture of seawater and fresh water in estuaries is called brackish water and its salinity can range from 0.5 to 35 ppt.

Vertical distribution of salinity in oceans | UPSC – IAS

  • Very cold and very salty water forms in polar regions every winter. This cold and salty water is denser, so it sinks toward the seafloor.

Pacific ocean salinity

Salinity also varies latitudinally, reaching a maximum of 37 parts per thousand in the southeastern area. The water near the equator, which can have a salinity as low as 34 parts per thousand, is less salty than that found in the mid-latitudes because of abundant equatorial precipitation throughout the year.

  • Indian ocean salinity – The surface salinity in Indian ocean ranges from 32 to 37 parts per 1000.

Enclosed Seas in the world (example)

  • Enclosed Sea — black sea ,dead sea
  • Partially enclosed Sea – Mediterranean sea, red sea