Shikher Goyal

Shikher, a dedicated UPSC aspirant and proficient website administrator. Effortlessly managing the demands of his UPSC preparation and the intricacies of blog management.

Ruin of Artisans and Craftsmen: Causes & impact | UPSC

Ruin of Artisans and Craftsmen Causes & impact UPSC IAS PCS Gk today

Ruin of Artisans and Craftsmen Causes & impact UPSC IAS PCS Gk today

Ruin of Artisans and Craftsmen | UPSC – IAS | NCERT

There was a sudden and quick collapse of the urban handicrafts which had for centuries made India’s name a byword in the markets of the entire civilised world.

Causes & impact | UPSC – IAS

  • This collapse was caused largely by competition with the cheaper imported machine-goods from Britain. (influx of foreign goods)
  • British imposed a policy of one-way free trade on India after 1813
  • Indian goods made with primitive techniques could not compete with goods produced on a mass scale by powerful steam-operated machines.
  • ruin of Indian industries, particularly rural artisan industries, proceeded even more rapidly once the railways were built. Therailways enabled British manufactures to reach and uproot the traditional industries in the remotest villages of the country
  • The cotton weaving and spinning industries were the worst hit.
  • forcing them to sell their goods below the market price and to hire their service below the prevailing wage, compelled a large number of them to abandon their ancestral professions
  • The high import duties and other restrictions imposed on the import of Indian goods into Britain and Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries, combined with the development of modern manufacturing industries in Britain, led to the virtual closing of the European markets to Indian manufacturers after 1820.
  • The British. policy of exporting raw materials also injured Indian handicrafts by raising the prices of raw materials like cotton and leather. This increased the cost of handicrafts and reduced their capacity to compete with foreign goods.
  • The tragedy was heightened by the fact that the decay of the traditional industries was not accompanied by the growth of modern machine industries as was the case in Britain and western Europe. Consequently, the ruined handicrafts-men and artisans failed to find alternative employment. The only choice open to them was to crowd into agriculture.

Conclusion | UPSC – IAS

  • Thus British conquest led to the de-industrialisation of the country and increased dependence of the people on agriculture
  • Between 1901 and 1941 alone the percentage of population dependent on agriculture increased from 63.7 per cent to 70 percent. This increasing pressure on agriculture was one of the major causes of the extreme poverty of India under British rule.
  • In fact India now became an agricultural colony of manufacturing Britain which needed it as a source of raw materials for its industries.
  • Moreover, the British rule also upset the balance of economic life in the villages,The gradual destruction of rural crafts broke up the union between agriculture and domestic industry in the countryside and thus contributed to the destruction of the self-sufficient village economy.
  • India had been for centuries the largest exporter of cotton goods in the world, it was now transformed into an importer of British cotton products & an exporter of raw cotton

**gradual disappearance of Indian rulers and their courts who were the main customers of town handicrafts also gave a big blow to these industries.

Ruin of Old Zamindars and Rise of New Landlord-ism | UPSC – IAS

Ruin of Old Zamindars and Rise of New Landlord-ism UPSC IAS PCS Gk today

Ruin of Old Zamindars and Rise of New Landlord-ism UPSC IAS PCS Gk today

Ruin of Old Zamindars and Rise of New Landlord-ism | UPSC – IAS

British economic policy favoured the rise of a new landlordism, as the high revenue demands forced traditional landowners to sell their land. Rich money-lenders and others bought this land and there was a spread of growth of intermediaries

  • By 1815, half the total land in Bengal had passed into hands of money-lenders, merchants, and rich peasants who usually got the land cultivated by tenants. The new zamindars, with increased powers but with little or no avenues for new investments, resorted to land-grabbing and sub-infeudation.Warren Hastings’ policy of auctioning the rights of revenue collection to the highest bidders, (Izaredari System)

The Permanent Settlement of 1793 | UPSC – IAS

  • A remarkable feature of’ the spread of landlord-ism was, the growth of sub-infeudation or intermediaries. Since the cultivating tenants were generally unprotected and the overcrowding of land led tenants to compete
  • With one another to acquire land, the rent of land went on increasing. The zamindars and the new landlords found it convenient to sublet their right to collect rent to other eager persons on profitable terms
  • Increase in number of intermediaries to be paid gave rise to absentee landlordism and increased the burden on the peasant.
  • Zamindar had no incentive to invest in the improvement of agriculture. The interests of the zamindars lay only in the perpetuation of British rule and in opposing the national movement
  • But the condition of the zamindars soon improved radically. In order to enable the zamindars to pay the land revenue in time, the authorities increased their power over the tenants by extinguishing the traditional rights of the tenants. Consequently, they rapidly grew in prosperity

Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture | UPSC – IAS

As a result of overcrowding of agriculture, excessive land revenue demand, growth of landlordism, increasing indebtedness, and the growing impoverishment of the cultivators, Indian agriculture began to stagnate and even deteriorate resulting in extremely low yields per acre.

  • At a time when agriculture all over the world was being modernised and revolutionised, Indian agriculture was technologically stagnating, hardly any modern machinery was used.

Impoverishment of the Peasantry | Analysis and Conclusion | UPSC

Impoverishment of the Peasantry Analysis and Conclusion UPSC IAS PCS Gk today the hindu

Impoverishment of the Peasantry Analysis and Conclusion UPSC IAS PCS Gk today the hindu

Impoverishment of the Peasantry | UPSC – IAS

The peasant was also progressively impoverished under British rule, his material condition deteriorated and he steadily sank into poverty. In the very beginning of British rule in Bengal, the policy of Clive and Warren Hasting of extracting the largest possible land revenue had led to such devastation

Temporary & permanent settlement | UPSC – IAS

  • In both temporary & permanent settlement zamindari areas a lot of peasants remained unenviable. They were left to the mercies of the zamindars who raised rents to unbearable limits, compelled them to pay illegal dues and to perform forced labour or beggar, and oppressed them in diverse other ways

Ryotwari and Mahalwari | UPSC – IAS

  • Condition of the cultivators in the Ryotwari and Mahalwari areas was no better.Here, Government took the place of the zamindar and levied excessive land revenue which was in the beginning fixed as high as one-third to one-half of the produce. Heavy assessment of land was one of the main causes of the growth of poverty and the deterioration of agriculture in the 19th century.
  • The evil of high revenue demand was made worse by the fact that the peasant got little economic return for it. The Government spent very little on improving agriculture.
  • It devoted almost its entire income to meeting the needs of British-Indian administration, making the payments of direct and indirect tribute to England, and serving the ·interest of British trade and industry. Even the maintenance of law order tended to benefit the merchant and the money-lender rather than the peasant.
  • In Pre-British times, the money-lender was subordinated to the village community. He could not behave in a manner totally disliked by the rest of the village. For instance, he could not charge usurious rates of interest. In fact, the rates of interest were fixed by usage and public opinion.
  • By introducing transfer-ability of land the British revenue system enabled the money-lender or the rich peasant to take possession of land. Even the benefits of peace and security established by the British through their legal system and police were primarily reaped by the money-lender in whose hands the law placed enormous power

Poverty and Taxation | UPSC – IAS

The pressure of taxation and growing poverty pushed the cultivators into debt which in turn increased their poverty. In fact, the cultivators often failed to understand that the money-lender was an inevitable cog in the mechanism of imperialist exploitation and turned their anger against him as he appeared to be the visible cause of their impoverishment. For instance, during the Revolt of 1857, wherever the peasantry rose in revolt, quite often its first target of attack was the moneylender and his account books.

The rigid manner of its collection land revenue had to be paid promptly on the fixed dates even if the harvest had been below normal or had failed completely,

Conclusion and Analysis  | UPSC – IAS

The loss of land and the overcrowding of land caused by de-industrialization and lack of modern industry compelled the landless peasants and ruined artisans and handicrafts-men to become either tenants of the money-lenders and zamindars by paying rack-rent or agricultural labourers at starvation wages. Thus the peasantry was crushed under the triple burden of the Government, the zamindar or landlord, and the money-lender

Why Grand Delhi Durbars were organized ? | UPSC – IAS

Why Delhi Durbars were organized & its highlights UPSC IAS PCS

Why Delhi Durbars were organized & its highlights UPSC IAS PCS

What was Grand Delhi Durbars & why they were organized ?

The meaning of Delhi Durbar is ,”Court of Delhi”, was a mass assembly at Coronation Park in Delhi, India, to mark the succession of an Emperor or Empress of India. Also known as the Imperial Durbar.

How many times Grand Delhi Darbars/Durbars Held ?

It was held three times, in 1877, 1903, and 1911. let’s discuss all of them one by one-:

Highlights Of Grand Delhi Durbar 1877

  • A Grand Darbar was organized at Delhi on January 1, 1877, in which Queen Victoria was proclaimed empress of India. Queen Victoria was proclaimed with title “Kaisar-i-Hind” at this Durbar.
  • The Empress of India Medal to commemorate the Proclamation of the Queen as Empress of India was struck and distributed to the honored guests. Ramanath Tagore was made a Maharaja by Lord Lytton, viceroy of India
    **famine was darkening over southern India at this time of period

Highlights Of Grand Delhi Durbar 1903

  • The durbar was held to celebrate the succession of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra as Emperor and Empress of India. Lord Curzon was viceroy at that time Special medals known as Delhi Durbar Medals, were struck, firework displays, exhibitions and glamorous dances held.

Highlights Of Grand Delhi Durbar 1911

  • Durbar was held to commemorate the coronation of King George V and Queen Mary as Emperor and Empress of India. The Congress passed a resolution condemning the pomp and show of this Durbar at the cost of the poor Indians.
  • In this Durbar, the King declared that Capital of India will be transferred from Calcutta to Delhi.
  • In the same Durbar it was also declared the Partition of Bengal is cancelled.

Secularism in India – Features, Impact and Problems | UPSC – IAS

Secularism in India - Features, Impact and Problems UPSC - IAS

Secularism in India - Features, Impact and Problems UPSC - IAS

Blue –  No official religion | Red – States with Religion

 Secularism in India – Features, Impact and Problems | UPSC – IAS

The concept of secularism as embodied in the Constitution of India cannot be viewed in the sense in which it is viewed in the West, but in the context of the following provisions of the Constitution:

The Constitution guarantees:-

  • Freedom of conscience,
  • Freedom to profess, practice and propagate religion and
  • also Freedom to establish religious institutions and manage or administer their affairs.
  • It prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion and
  • Guarantees legal and social equality to all by providing for equality before law and  Equal protection of laws, prohibiting discrimination with regard to places of public importance and
  • Providing for equal opportunity in matters of public employment.
  • The Constitution also guarantees religious minorities the right to conserve their script, language and culture.

The provisions would naturally indicate that the Constitution of India endeavors to build up in India the philosophy of secularism on freedom, equality and tolerance in the field of religion. And viewed in this context it is clear that the Constitution does not build a wall of separation between the state and religion.

Thus, the distinguishing features of a secular democracy as contemplated by the constitution are:

  • That the state will not identify itself with or be controlled by any religion;
  • While the state guarantees to everyone the right to profess whatever religion one chooses to follow (which includes also the right to be an agnostic or an atheist), it will not accord any preferential treatment to any of them;
  • That no discrimination will be shown by the state against any person on account of his religion and faith;
  • That the right of every citizen, subject to any general condition to enter any office under the state will be equal to that of his fellow citizens.

Although the term secularism was not in the original text of the Constitution, secularism was a subject of animated discussion when the Constituent Assembly look up for consideration the provisions dealing with the freedom of religion.

Indian Constitution the Supreme Court observed: “There is no mysticism in the secular character of the state. Secularism is neither anti-God nor pro-God; it treats alike the devout, the agnostic and the atheist. It eliminates God from the matter of the state and ensures no one shall be discriminated against on the ground of religion.

Basic outline of the secularism is enshrined in the following Articles of the Constitution:

  • Preamble: It is true that the word ‘secular’ did not first occur either in Article 25 or 26 or in any other Article or Preamble of the Constitution. But the Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act, 1976, the Preamble was amended and for the words ‘Sovereign Democratic Republic‘ the words ‘Sovereign, socialist, secular, Democratic Republic’ were substituted.
  • No State Religion.

It follows from that:

  • No religious instruction shall be provided in any educational institution wholly run by state funds.
  • Even though religious instruction is imparted in educational institutions recognised by state or receiving aid from the state, no person at lending such institution shall be compelled to receive that religious instruction without the consent of himself or of his guardian. In short, while religious instruction is totally banned in state-owned educational institutions, in other denominational institutions it is not totally prohibited but it must not be imposed upon people of other religions without their consent (Article 28).
  • Freedom of Conscience: Every person is guaranteed the freedom of conscience and the freedom to profess, practice and propagate his own religion, subject only:
  • to restrictions imposed by the state on the interest of public order, morality and health.
  • to regulations or restrictions made by state relating, to any economic, financial, political or outer secular activity which may be associated with religious practice, but do not really related to the freedom of conscience;
  • to measures of social reform and for throwing open of Hindu religious institutions of a public character to all classes and sections of Hindus.

Freedom to Manage Religious Affairs:

  • To establish and maintain institutions (or religious and charitable purposes.
  • To manage its own affairs in matters of religion;
  • To own and acquire movable and immovable property; and
  • To administer such property in accordance with law (Article 26)

Conclusion| UPSC IAS

  • Secularism has to play a decisive role at present stage of Indian democracy.
  • It is so because today when the Indian democracy seems to face the challenge of narrow divisive trends and tendencies, a rational and scientific approach which is the basis of secularism has become a matter of utmost importance.
  • Communal disturbances which have distinguished the public life in the recent past, as well the birth and growth of narrow and divisive trends and obscurantist theories are mainly the result of ignorance can be fought not by legislation alone, nor by a negative fiat alone, but by education, and in the process of educating the traditional Indian mind, secularism and all that it stands for the political leaders have to play a major role.

Communalism in India Characteristics, Causes and Problems | UPSC IAS

Problems-of-Communalism-in-India-UPSC-IAS

Problems-of-Communalism-in-India-UPSC-IAS

Communalism in India Characteristics, Causes and Problems | UPSC – IAS

Indian society is pluralistic from religious point of view. Here, we have the followers of all the great religious systems. Hindus constitute the bulk of the population and they inhabit in all parts of the country. Muslims constitute the largest religious minority. But the adjustment between the Hindus and Muslims has been a failure several times, resulting in violent communal riots.

  • Communal riots during the period of independence. Communalism was responsible for the division of the country into India and Pakistan. The partition was expected to resolve the riddle, but it failed.

Meaning of Communalism | UPSC – IAS

  • Abdul Ahmed says, “Communalism is a social phenomenon characterized by the religion of two communities, often leading to acrimony, tension and even rioting between them”.
  • Prabha Dixit writes,Communalism is a political doctrine which makes use of religious and cultural differences to achieve political ends.
  • It may be perceived as a total commitment to a set of beliefs and is far from rationality.

Characteristics of Communalism | UPSC – IAS

  • Encompasses social, economic and political aspects for its manifestation.
  • It causes rivalry, violence and tension among masses.
  • It is used by the higher class people and elites as an instrument for division and exploitation of the communal identities of the poorer sections of their co-religionists.
  • Communalism is simply engineered by opportunistic political and economic interest.
  • It strikes at the roots of democracy, secularism and national integration.

Causes of Communalism in India | UPSC – IAS

  • Tendency of the Minorities: The Muslims fail to be intermingled in the national mainstream. Most of them do not participate in the secular nationalistic politics and insist on maintaining separate identity.
  • Orthodoxy and Obscurantism: There are strong elements of conservatism and fundamentalism among the Muslims. Such feeling has prevented them from accepting the concept of secularism and religious tolerance.
  • Design of the Leaders: Communalism has flourished in India because the communalist leaders of both Hindu and Muslim communities desire to flourish it in the interest of their communities. The demand for separate electorate and the organization of Muslim league were the practical manifestations of this line of thought. The British rule which produced the divide and rule policy, separate electorate on the basis of religion strengthened the basis of communalism in India. Ultimately the partition of the country provided further antagonistic feeling towards each other.
  • Weak Economic Status: Due to their educational backwardness, they have not been represented sufficiently in the public service, industry and trade etc. This causes the feeling of relative deprivation and such feelings contain the seeds of communalism.
  • Geographical Causes: The territorial settlement of different religious groups especially Hindus Muslims and Christians causes in them wide variation in the mode of life, social standards and belief system. Most of these patterns are contradictory and this may cause communal tension.
  • Social Causes: Social institutions, customs and practices of Hindus and Muslims are so divergent that they think themselves to be two distinct communities.
  • Psychological Causes: Psychological factors play an important role in the development of communalism. The Hindus think that the Muslims are fanatics and fundamentalists. They also believe that Muslims are unpatriotic. On the contrary, the Muslims feel that they are being treated as second rate citizens in India and their religious beliefs and practices are inferior. These feelings lead to communal ill-feeling.
  • Provocation of Enemy Countries: Some foreign countries try to destabilize our country by setting one community against the other through their agents. Pakistan has played a role in fostering communal feeling among the Muslims of our country. Pakistan has been encouraging and promoting communal riots by instigating the militant sections of Indian Muslim community. Kashmir youths are trained by Pakistan to destabilize India’s internal security by spreading communal venom.
  • Negative Impact of Mass Media: The messages relating to communal tension or riot in any part of the country spread through the mass media. This results in further tension and riots between two rival religious groups.
  • Ineffective Handling of Communal Riots

Suggestions for the Eradication of Communalism in India | UPSC – IAS

Abolition of Communal Parties:

  • All the political parties which thrive on religious loyalties should be banned or abolished by the government. Even non-political cultural organizations should always be kept under constant vigil so that they cannot preach communalism.

Transmission of the Past Heritage:

  • Feelings of nationalism should be inculcated in the minds of people by reminding them about the glorious moments of history in Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs were combined to safeguard the interest of the country.

Public Opinion:

  • Efforts should be made through mass media for changing the attitude of people towards other communities. People must be aware of the evils of the communalism.

Inter-religious Marriage:

  • Youth organizations and other types of associations should be formed in every locality to give opportunity to people of different communities to come closer and know each other. This may help them to practice inter-religious marriages which will lessen the social distance among the members of different religious groups.

Both the Government and people should make efforts for eradication of communal tension and conflict.

About The NAC Communal Violence Bill:

(Prevention of Communal and Targeted Violence 2011)

The National Advisory Committee has recently come out with a Communal Violence Bill. The Bill is intended to prevent acts of violence, or incitement to violence directed at people by virtue of their membership to any “group”.

An existing Bill titled the “Communal Violence (Prevention, Control and Rehabilitation of Victims) Bill, 2005” pending in the Rajya Sabha.  The main features of the NAC Bill are explained below:

  • The Bill makes illegal acts which result in injury to persons or property, if such acts are directed against persons on the basis of their affiliation to any group, and if such an act destroys the secular fabric of the nation.Such acts include sexual assault, hate propaganda, torture and organized communal violence.
  • It makes public servants punishable for failing to discharge their stated duties in an unbiased manner. In addition, public servants have duties such as the duty to provide protection to victims of communal violence and also have to take steps to prevent the outbreak of communal violence.
  • The Bill establishes a National Authority for Communal Harmony, Justice, and Reparation NACHJR to prevent acts of communal violence, incitement to communal violence, containing the spread of communal violence, and monitoring investigations into acts of communal violence. The Authority can also inquire into and investigate acts of communal violence by itself. The Bill also provides for the setting up of State Authorities for Communal Harmony, Justice, and Reparation.
  • The central or state government has been given the authority to intercept any messages or transmissions if it feels that it might lead to communal violence. This power is subject to existing procedures which have to be complied with for intercepting messages and transmissions.
  • Importantly, if public officers are liable to be prosecuted for offences under the Bill, and prior sanction is required for such prosecution, the state government has to grant or refuse sanction within 30 days. If not, then sanction will be deemed to have been granted.
  • The Bill also allows the states to set up one or more Human Rights Defender of Justice and Reparations’ in every district. The Human Rights defender will ensure that those affected by communal and targeted violence are able to access their rights under existing laws.
  • Apart from these, the Bill also establishes state and district-level authorities for assessing compensation for victims of communal violence.
  • States have numerous obligations towards victims, such as establishment of relief camps, ensuring proper facilities, medical provisions and clothing for those within camps, etc.
  • The states government also has the obligation to create conditions which allow the return of victims of communal violence to the place of their ordinary residence.

India divided over communal violence bill | UPSC – IAS

India is on the brink of enacting legislation that will seek justice for minorities of all categories when they become victims of targeted, mass violence. Crafted by the National Advisory Council (NAC), the Prevention of Communal and Targeted Violence (Access to Justice and Reparations) Bill, 2011, will be introduced in parliament during the upcoming monsoon session.

  • The bill aims at creating a framework for preventing pogroms such as the attacks on Muslims in Gujarat in 2002, and the provision of relief for victims of such violence. It has kicked up a storm with some people criticizing it as “draconian” and “anti-Hindu” and others dismissing it as “toothless and meaningless”.
  • Communal violence has wracked India for decades. Partition of the subcontinent in 1947 was accompanied by horrific violence between Hindus and Sikhs on the one hand and Muslims on the other, leaving a million dead and over 10 times that number homeless.
  • Since independence, there have been countless instances of communal violence. In the 2005-09 period alone, 648 people were killed and 11,278 injured in 4,030 such incidents, according to the PRS Legislative Research website. Communal clashes during this period peaked in 2008 with 943 cases being reported that year.
  • Communal violence in India is rarely spontaneous. It is mostly engineered. Most clashes have been between Hindus and Muslims but Hindu-Christian violence too is not uncommon. While people of all religious communities suffer during these riots, it is the minorities – Muslims, Sikhs, and in recent years Christians who have borne the brunt.

“What we need, thus, is not so much a new law defining new crimes (although that would be useful too) but a law to ensure that the police and bureaucrats and their political masters follow the existing law of the land. In other words, we need a law that punishes them for discriminating against citizens who happen to be minorities,” he writes.And this is what the Prevention of Communal and Targeted Violence bill sets out to do.

Prevention of Communal and Targeted Violence Bill | UPSC – IAS

India’s constitution declares the country to be secular. However, institutional bias against religious and linguistic minorities is deeply entrenched, making them vulnerable to violence.The Prevention of Communal and Targeted Violence Bill seeks to change this in several ways.

  • It describes “communal and targeted violence” as that acts that are “knowingly directed against any person by virtue of his or her membership of any group, which destroys the secular fabric of the nation” and then goes on to define “group” as “a religious or linguistic minority or Scheduled Castes [Dalits] and Scheduled Tribes.”

In other words, only violence against a minority community is considered communal violence.

  • The law also makes it obligatory that at least four of the seven member posts in the National Authority for Communal Harmony, Justice and Reparation belong to a minority community.
  • The bill has drawn fire from Hindu nationalists, who see it as evidence of the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government’s appeasement of Muslims. They are asking why violence against the majority community should not be considered communal.
  • Social activist Ram Puniyani draws attention to “concrete realities” in Indian society to justify the bill’s focus on minorities. The minorities have after all suffered disproportionately during communal violence. Muslims comprise 90% of victims of violence, he says.
  • Besides, the bill speaks of “a religious and linguistic minority in any state” in India. Hindus are an overwhelming majority – 80.46% – nationwide but constitute a minority in seven states, including Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Mizoram, Meghalaya and Nagaland. They too are thus covered by the bill.

An earlier draft of the bill had irked secular sections as well. It had defined communal violence as that which has destroyed India’s secular fabric. This prompted criticism that the bill raised the bar for violence to be regarded as communal too high rendering it meaningless. After all it is arguable whether any incident of communal violence has actually destroyed India’s secular fabric.

Responding to criticism, the NAC has now made 49 amendments to its earlier draft. In its definition of communal and targeted violence it has dropped the reference to “destruction of the secular fabric”. It has also deleted a clause in the earlier draft that allowed the federal government to unilaterally intervene in communal situations in states as it had raised concern over its implications for the working of the country’s federal structure.

The NAC has, however, ignored the right-wing’s criticism and stuck to its focus on minorities in the bill. This could mean that the bill will come up against fierce opposition in parliament from parties like the BJP.

Why Dr BR Ambedkar is called ‘Modern manu’ ?

role of dr b.r. ambedkar in making indian constitution

Who is Dr br Ambedkar ?

  • Dr Bhim Rao Ambedkar (1891-1956) is considered the father of the Indian Constitution and is also the best known leader of the Dalits. Because Dr Ambedkar fought for the rights of the Dalit community.
  • He was born into the Mahar caste, which was considered untouchable. The Mahars were poor, owned no land and children born to them also had to do the work their parents did.
  • Dr Ambedkar was the first person from his caste who completed his college education and went to England to become a lawyer.
  • Bhim Rao Ambedkar encouraged Dalits to send their children to school and college. He also urged Dalits to take on different kinds of government jobs in order to move out of the caste system.
  • Ambedkar led many efforts of Dalits to gain entry into temples.
  • Later in life he converted to Buddhism in his search for a religion that treated all members equally. Dr Ambedkar believed that Dalits must fight the caste system and work towards a society based on respect not just for a few but for all persons.

 Why Dr BR Ambedkar is called ‘Modern manu’ ?

Dr BR Ambedkar is called Modern Manu because of Hindu Code Bill which he drafted. Dr Ambedkar drafted a radical and most progressive Hindu Code Bill which would have regulated the socio-religious laws of Hindus. It was bundle of several laws that aimed to modify and reform Hindu Personal Law in India. He aimed for broader individual liberty and equality of men and women in Hindu Social system.

Some of the radical and bold measure adopted in Hindu Code Bill for women included are as follows:-

  • The property including both movable and immovable property should be acquired by a woman,
  • the acquisition of property should be made by a woman before and after marriage even during by the widowhood from her parents or husband.
  • Dowry system would be paid as a condition and consideration, the share of the property of each unmarried daughter shall be half that of each son and the share of each married daughter shall be one quarter of that of each son.

Nehru Report, Delhi Proposals and Jinnah’s Fourteen Demands | UPSC

Nehru Report of 1928 | UPSC - IAS

Delhi Proposals December 1927 | UPSC – IAS

Earlier, in December 1927, a large number of Muslim leaders had met at Delhi at the Muslim League session and evolved four proposals for Muslim demands to be incorporated in the draft constitution. These proposals, which were accepted by the Madras session of the Congress (December 1927), came to be known as the ‘Delhi Proposals’. These were

  • Joint electorates in place of separate electorates with reserved seats for Muslims;
  • One-third representation to Muslims in Central Legislative Assembly;
  • Representation to Muslims in Punjab and Bengal in proportion to their population;
  • Formation of three new Muslim majority provinces— Sindh, Baluchistan and North-West Frontier Province.

Nehru Report of 1928 | UPSC – IAS

The Nehru Report of 28–30 August, 1928 was a memorandum outlining a proposed new dominion status constitution for India. It was prepared by a committee of the All Parties Conference chaired by Motilal Nehru with his son Jawaharlal Nehru acting as secretary.

The Nehru Report confined itself to British India, as it envisaged the future link-up of British India with the princely states on a federal basis. Nehru report Recommendation are as follows:-

  • Dominion status
  • No separate electorates, but joint electorates with reserved seats for minorities.
  • Linguistic provinces.
  • Nineteen fundamental rights including equal rights for women, right to form unions, and universal adult suffrage.
  • Responsible government at center and in provinces
  • Full protection to cultural and religious interests of Muslims.
  • Complete dissociation of state from religion.

Nehru Report of 1928 significance – first major attempt to draft a constitutional framework for the country. 

  • As  an answer to Lord Birkenhead’s challenge, an All Parties Conference met in February 1928 and appointed a subcommittee under the chairmanship of Motilal Nehru to draft a constitution
  • Nehru Committee – were unanimous except in one respect  – while the majority favoured the “dominion status” as the basis of the Constitution, a section of it wanted “complete independence” as the basis, with the majority section giving the latter section liberty of action. younger section regarded the idea of dominion status in the report as a step backward.
  • Main Personalities involved – Tej Bahadur Sapru, Subhash Bose, M.S. Aney, Mangal Singh, Ali Imam, Shuab Qureshi and G.R.

Amendments Proposed by Jinnah | UPSC – IAS

At the All Parties Conference held at Calcutta in December 1928 to consider the Nehru Report, Jinnah, on behalf of the Muslim League, proposed three amendments to the report:

  • One-third representation to Muslims in the Central Legislature
  • Reservation to Muslims in Bengal and Punjab legislatures proportionate to their population, till adult suffrage was established
  • Residual powers to provinces.

These demands not being accommodated, Jinnah went back to the Shafi faction of the Muslim League and in March 1929 gave fourteen points which were to become the basis of all future propaganda of the Muslim League.

Jinnah’s Fourteen Demands | UPSC – IAS

  • Federal Constitution with residual powers to provinces.
  • Provincial autonomy.
  • No constitutional amendment by the centre without the concurrence of the states constituting the Indian federation.
  • All legislatures and elected bodies to have adequate representation of Muslims in every province without reducing a majority of Muslims in a province to a minority or equality.
  • Adequate representation to Muslims in the services and in self governing bodies.
  • One-third Muslim representation in the Central Legislature.
  • In any cabinet at the centre or in the provinces, one third to be Muslims.
  • Separate electorates.
  • No bill or resolution in any legislature to be passed if three fourths of a minority community consider such a bill or resolution to be against their interests.
  • Any territorial redistribution not to affect the Muslim majority in Punjab, Bengal and NWFP.
  • Separation of Sindh from Bombay.
  • Constitutional reforms in the NWFP and Balochistan.
  • Full religious freedom to all communities.
  • Protection of Muslim rights in religion, culture, education and language.

Not only were the Muslim League, the Hindu Mahasabha and the Sikh communalists unhappy about the Nehru Report, but the younger section of the Congress led by Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Bose were also angered. The younger section regarded the idea of dominion status in the report as a step backward, and the developments at the All Parties Conference strengthened their criticism of the dominion status idea. Nehru and Subhash Bose rejected the Congress’ modified goal and jointly set up the Independence for India League.

Wavell Plan | Breakdown Plan 1945 & Shimla Conference | UPSC

Wavell-Plan-Shimla

Wavell Plan 1945 & Shimla Conference | UPSC – IAS

The Simla Conference 1945 was a meeting between the Viceroy and the major political leaders of British India at Simla, India. Convened to agree on and approve the Wavell Plan for Indian self-government, and there it reached a potential agreement for the self-rule of India that provided separate representation for Muslims and reduced majority powers for both communities in their majority regions.

  • The idea was to reconstruct the governor general’s executive council pending the preparation of a new constitution. For this purpose, a conference was convened by the viceroy, Lord Wavell, at Shimla in June 1945.

The Main Proposals of the Wavell Plan were as follows:-

  • The Viceroy’s Executive Council would be immediately reconstituted and the number of its members would be increased.
  • In the Council there would be equal representation of high-caste Hindus and Muslims.
  • All the members of the Council, except the Viceroy and the Commander-in-Chief, would be Indians.
  • An Indian would be appointed as the member for Foreign Affairs in the Council. However, a British commissioner would be responsible for trade matters.
  • The defence of India would remain in British hands until power was ultimately transferred to Indians.
  • The Viceroy would convene a meeting of Indian politicians including the leaders of Congress and the Muslim League at which they would nominate members of the new Council.
  • If this plan were to be approved for the central government, then similar councils of local political leaders would be formed in all the provinces.
  • None of the changes suggested would in any way prejudice or prejudge the essential form of the future permanent Constitution of India.
  • With the exception of the governor-general and the commander-in-chief, all members of the executive council were to be Indians.
  • Caste – Hindus and Muslims were to have equal representation
  • The reconstructed council was to function as an interim government within the framework of the 1935 Act (i.e. not responsible to the Central Assembly).

To discuss these proposals with Indian leaders, Wavell summoned them to a conference to take place in Shimla on 25 June 1945.

Wavell-Plan-Shimla

Why the Government was Keen on a Solution Now?

Because of the following reasons:-

  • The general election in England was scheduled for mid-1945. The Conservatives wanted to be seen as sincere on reaching a solution.
  • There was pressure from the Allies to seek further Indian cooperation in the war.
  • The Government wanted to divert Indian energies into channels more profitable for the British.

Failure of the Simla Conference | UPSC – IAS

Meanwhile, a general election had been held in the United Kingdom in July 1945 which had brought the Labour Party to power. The Labour party wanted to transfer power to the Indians as quickly as possible. The new government sent the Cabinet Mission to India and this proved to be the final nail in the coffin of the Wavell Plan.

Wavell’s Mistake and Criticism of Wavell Plan | UPSC – IAS

Wavell announced a breakdown of talks thus giving the League a virtual veto.  This strengthened the League’s position, as was evident from the elections in 1945-46, and boosted Jinnah’s position;

The Wavell Plan, in essence, proposed the complete Indianisation of the Executive Council, but instead of asking all the parties to nominate members to the Executive Council from all the communities, seats were reserved for members on the basis of religion and caste, with the caste Hindus and Muslims being represented on it on the basis of parity. Even Mahatma Gandhi resented the use of the words “caste Hindus”.

While the plan proposed immediate changes to the composition of the Executive Council it did not contain any guarantee of Indian independence, nor did it contain any mention of a future constituent assembly or any proposals for the division of power between the various parties of India.

Theory of Isostasy | Geography Optional | UPSC – IAS

Postulations of Airy theory of Isostasy

Theory of Isostasy | Geography Optional | UPSC – IAS

Introduction to Theory of Isostasy

The term “Isostasy” is derived from “Isostasios”, a word of Greek language meaning the state of being in balance or equal standing or in equipoise. The theory of isostasy explains, the tendency of the earth’s crust to attain equilibrium and the distribution of the material in the earth’s crust which conforms to the observed gravity values.

The Theory of Isostasy UPSC IAS

  • Theory of Isostasy, is a fundamental concept in geology, is based on the opposing influence of two main forces – Buoyancy and Gravity
  • It is the state of gravitational equilibrium between earth’s crust and mantle, Such that – The crust floats at an elevation that depends on its thickness and density.
  • It is the idea that the lighter crust must be floating on the denser underlying mantle.

History and Explanation (Theory of Isostasy)

  • Theory of Isostasy was developed from gravity surveys in the mountains of India, in 1850. The term was first proposed by Clarence Dutton, an American geologist in 1889.
  • This doctrine states that wherever equilibrium exists in the earth’s surface, equal mass must underlie equal surface areas; in other words a great continental mass must be formed of lighter material than that supposed to constitute the ocean-floor.
  • Thus, there exists a gravitational balance between crustal segments of different thickness. According to Dutton, the elevated masses are characterized by rocks of low density and the depressed basins by rocks of higher density.
  • In order to compensate for its greater height these lighter continental material must extend downward to some distance under the continent and below the ocean-floor level in order that unit areas beneath the oceans and continents may remain in stable equilibrium.
  • Accordingly, a level of uniform pressure is thought to exist where the pressure due to elevated masses and depressed areas would be equal. This is known as the ‘Isopiestic-Level‘.

Understanding the Concept of Theory of Isostasy

  • It is invoked to explain how different topographic heights can exists on the Earth’s surface. Isostatic equilibrium is an ideal state where the crust and mantle would settle into in absence of disturbing forces. These are the examples of processes that perturb isostasy :-
    • The waxing and waning of ice sheets,
    • Erosion, sedimentation, and
    • Extrusive volcanism
  • The physical properties of the lithosphere (the rocky shell that forms Earth’s exterior) are affected by the way the mantle and crust respond to these perturbations.
  • Therefore, understanding the dynamics of isostasy helps us figure out more complex phenomena such as:-
    • Mountain building,
    • Sedimentary basin formation,
    • The break-up of continents and
    • The formation of new ocean basins

Postulations of Airy (Theory of Isostasy – UPSC)

  • According to him the crust of relatively lighter material is floating in the substra­tum of denser material. In other words, ‘sial’ is floating in ‘sima’.
  • He considered the density of different columns (plains, plateaus, mountains, etc.) to be the same. Hence, he proposed the idea of ‘Uniform density with varying thickness’.

Postulations of Airy theory of Isostasy

Postulations of Pratt  (Theory of Isostasy – UPSC)

  • Pratt considered land blocks of various heights to be different in terms of their density.
  • The taller landmass has lesser density and smaller height features to be denser. If there is a higher column, density will be lesser and if there is a shorter column, density will be higher
  • He accepted that all blocks of different height get compensated at a certain depth into the substratum. Thus, he denounced the root concept of Airy and accepted the ‘concept of a level of compensation’.

Postulations of Pratt - Theory of Isostasy

 

Difference between pratt and airy Isostasy

      Views of Airy        Views of Pratt
•Uniform density of crustal  material. •Varying density of  crustal  material.
•Varying depth up to which root penetrates. crustal material reaches. •Uniform depth up to which crustal material reaches.
•Deeper root below the    mountain  and smaller   beneath plain. •No root formation, but a  level of Compensation.

Both theories predict a relative deficiency of mass under high mountains,

  • But –Airy’s theory is now known to be a better explanation of mountains within continental regions, whereas –

Pratt’s theory essentially explains the difference between continents and oceans, since the continent crust is largely of granitic composition which is less dense than the basaltic ocean basin.

UPSC – CSE  Previous Year’s Questions (Mains)

  • UPSC – CSE 2001 : Present a critical analysis of the theory of isostasy.
  • UPSC – CSE 2007 : Define the concept of isostasy and discuss the postulations of Airy and Pratt.
  • UPSC – CSE 2011 : Explain the concept of Isostasy as postulated by Airy and Pratt
  • Difference between pratt and airy isostasy or Examine the difference between airy and pratt in view of isostasy..

Advantages and disadvantages of internet for students

Impact of Internet Addiction on Mental Health:

Impact of Internet Addiction on Mental Health:

The Internet is a network that connects computers to each other at any time and from anywhere in the world. To send and receive information of any kind. Such as text, graphics, sound or image, or even electronic programs. And this is through Specialised servers and routers, using special protocols each have a specific function in the transmission and reception of the various digital data packets.

  • The Internet has evolved over the years and helped in the rapid growth of the personal computer hardware markets in the eighties and featured the World Wide Web in the early nineties making web browsing easier and make available to everyone from around the world .
  • People have become dependent on the Internet in many aspects of their life because of its multiple benefits it is a quick service in obtaining information and is characterized by the abundance of information available on the sites related to it and the Internet has enabled many people to escape their reality and their lives many Problems to the virtual world.
  • It is worth noting that the – impact of the Internet on people is no less than the impact of narcotic drugs. Which has created many social risks and physical harm.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Internet for students

Damages and risks of the Internet –  Scientists have found that the Internet has many disadvantages that may occur if used incorrectly or overuse.

The spread of cyber-crime:

  • With the increasing number of people using the Internet. It is easy for professionals and those who have the ability to penetrate to obtain personal information about certain people and their family members and use this information illegally. And criminals can become criminal through websites without fear of censorship.

Addiction and waste of time:

  • People become addicted to the Internet and in different ways. Some of them addicted to the games and designed to addicted to them, and these games can be devastating to one’s mind without feeling it one may start using the Internet to do something useful and to exploit his time.
  • But that with the many delusions available on the Internet ends up distracting his thinking and wasting his time.

Inability to Disconnect

  • Since Internet service has given the individual the ability to work from anywhere and at any time. And made it available at all times you may be sitting at home and receiving an email asking to perform a task related to work. And ends up To perform the work without receiving any additional funds.

Health problems 

  • The Internet can lead to obesity problems due to laziness and lack of movement. As it leads to unhealthy lifestyle and excessive use of the Internet can cause problems in the wrist or what is known as carpal tunnel due to excessive use of mouse or use Continuous keyboard.

The exploitation of the other and the display of pornography:

  • It is easy to hurt people and each other and someone to impersonate another person’s personality to exploit and harm. The opposite party whether of another sex or of the same sex in addition to the proliferation of sites containing materials for obscene materials. And materials Minors can reach it easily either deliberately or by mistake leading to very serious social and psychological problems.

Adverts and Slogans

  • Advertising has become easier to publish and a wider range of traditional means which has led to ads becoming a source of inconvenience to one receiving many of them on his email and see more on social networking sites.
  • A slogan is a memorable motto or phrase used in a clan, political, commercial, religious, and other context as a repetitive expression of an idea or purpose, with the goal of persuading members of the public or a more defined target group.

Buying things without the need

  • Easy online e-shopping, where one can shop through different sites without the need to get out of the house which made one spend his money in things that do not need it, and it would develop into addiction to E-shopping Individuals may be debt-impaired as a result.

Depression and isolation

  • Many social networking sites cause individuals to be isolated from social life, and thus feel lonely and isolated from friends and family.
  • The negative impact on the Focus:- Web sites offer online information instantly to the user as it can move from one location to another and thus receive different information and move the focus from one position to another very quickly, which leads later to the dispersion and reduce human patience day after day focus

Disadvantages of Internet for | Students | Kids | Children

  • The Internet is a huge source of information. If a student fails to learn, he or she can obtain information through educational sites on the Internet where parents provide Internet for their children to study and gather information for research. But the disadvantage lies in the inability of students to resist temptations on the Internet.
  • To end the games and video clips and chat with each other, and thus deviate from the main purpose that they use the Internet. So parents should monitor their children and follow their studies on the Internet, and prevent them from inappropriate sites Will study the impact on their children and their future and their behaviour.

Internet damage to work and public life

  • The Internet reduces productivity at work because of its temptations and sources of self-entertainment. Companies today offer the opportunity to browse through the various websites of employees at any time, and if not available on the organisation’s computers. it is available on their mobile phones.
  • The limited use of the Internet was limited to the exchange of e-mail messages. Discussion of plans and work-related matters. The ability of employees to access various Internet sites wasting their time. Being unable to concentrate and thus less Productivity at work.

Internet addiction and its related types

Recent studies and research have shown that online addiction has become a reality. Psychiatrists have begun to study the subject of online addiction seriously. They have established specialised centres in this regard and have begun to educate people about the damage caused by the excessive use of the Internet. Online is a type of addiction, which is a disorder that leads to the emergence of a psychological need for coercion resulting from the lack of satisfaction of the individual use of the Internet, and the addiction to the Internet is a satisfactory condition resulting in behavioural disorders, and can be inferred through several  the most important increase in the number of hours spent by the individual in front of a computer over time.

Scientists have divided online addiction into five main types:

  • Knowledge addiction: It is the will of one to learn from the knowledge on the Internet and then to be dazzled by the huge amount of information. Which leads to the signing of many hours in the browsing and forget about the main things of life.
  • Chat addiction: where the individual begins to dispense with his life and his real relationships and entering the world of the Internet and the construction of electronic relationships.
  • Addiction to Games: It means that one plays electronic games excessively and neglect his basic duties in life as homework, and can also neglect his studies and work as well.
  • Financial Addiction: It is a person to spend his money through the Internet in things not needed. Such as participation in the financial markets, auctions, gambling and so on.
  • Sexual Addiction: It is a web browsing to access pornographic sites and chat rooms. This may be due to an individual’s lack of emotional satisfaction or suffering from certain psychological problems and addiction may increase these problems.

How do you stop or prevent digital addiction ?

People using digital media do exhibit symptoms of behavioural addiction. These include salience, conflict, and mood modification when they check their online profiles regularly.

It has been generally accepted among researchers, that Internet Addiction is only a subset of technology addiction in general. As other areas of media addiction can be seen:-

  • Television addiction,
  • Mobile addiction,
  • Games Addiction
  • Internet addiction and social media addiction
  • other types of media addiction.

The prevention of online/internet addiction is the responsibility of parents and teachers. And the total mental health personnel and owners of cafes that provide this service around the clock. There is the need to educate individuals on this subject and to protect themselves from the risk of addiction to the Internet. They should organise working hours or leisure hours to be only two hours a day. Parents should follow their children in terms of their period of use of the Internet. The nature of use and what programs they use, as well as guide them to useful and meaningful sites.

How can I stop using the Internet so much ?

  • By practice self-control: Block out distracting websites and Social Media for a set amount of time.
  • Time Out: Remind yourself to take regular breaks to keep your focus sharp.
  • FocusBooster: Focus on single tasks and limiting your activity related to internet use.
  • Think and Concentrate: Limit your attention to a single application at a time.
  • Become a Focus-writer: Create a distraction-free environment for writing.
  • Be an anti-Social Media: Instantly block all the social websites that are wasting your time.
  • Stay Focused: Curb the time you spend browsing time-wasting sites.
  • Outdoor: Choose outdoor activities over technology

Mountbatten or 3rd June Plan | Dickie Bird | Ismay | Balkan | UPSC – IAS

Mountbatten Plan or 3rd June Plan – Dickie Bird | Ismay | Plan Balkan

Mountbatten prepared a “Dickie Bird Plan” for India’s independence. This plan was prepared by a committee of General Sir Hastings Ismay, Sir George Abell and Lord Mountbatten himself. Plan Balkan was completed and presented on 15-16 April 1947 by Hastings Ismay to assembly of provincial governors in Delhi. Due to this, this plan was also called “Ismay Plan”.

  • Balkan plan was an alternative plan to Cabinet mission. Between March and May of 1947, Mountbatten decided that the Cabinet Mission Plan had become untenable and formulated an alternative plan. This plan envisaged the transfer of power to separate provinces (or to a confederation, if formed before the transfer), with Punjab and Bengal given the option to vote for partition of their provinces.
  • The various units thus formed along with the princely states (rendered independent by lapse of paramountcy) would have the option of joining India or Pakistan or remaining separate. The plan was quickly abandoned after Nehru reacted violently to it.

Mountbatten Plan or 3rd June Plan | UPSC – IAS

Mountbatten Plan was also known as the 3rd June Plan. The British government proposed a plan announced on 3rd June 1947 that included these principles:

  • Principle of the Partition of British India was accepted by the British Government
  • Successor governments would be given dominion status
  • autonomy and sovereignty to both countries
  • can make their own constitution after partition

The freedom with partition formula was coming to be widely accepted well before Mountbatten came. One major innovation (actually suggested by V.P. Menon) was the immediate transfer of power on the basis of grant of dominion status (with ”a right of secession), thus obviating the need to wait for an agreement in the Constituent Assembly on a new political structure.

Mountbatten Plan Main Points | UPSC – IAS

The important points of the plan were:-

  • Punjab and Bengal would meet in two, groups Hindus and Muslims, to vote for partition. If a simple majority of either group voted for partition, then these provinces would be partitioned.
  • In case of partition, two dominions and two constituent assemblies would be created.
  • Sindh would take its own decision.
  • Referendum: in NWFP and Sylhet district of Bengal would decide the fate of these areas.
  • Since the Congress had conceded a unified India, all their other points would be met
    • Independence for princely states ruled out, they would either join India or Pakistan.
    • Independence for Bengal ruled out.
    • Accession of Hyderabad to Pakistan ruled out (Mountbatten supported the Congress on this).
  • Freedom would come on August 15, 1947.
  • A boundary commission would be set up if partition was to be effected.

Thus, the League’s demand was conceded to the ‘extent that Pakistan would be created and the Congress’ position on unity was taken into account to make Pakistan as small as possible. Mountbatten’s formula was to divide India but retain maximum unity.

Why Congress Accepted Dominion Status? | UPSC – IAS

The Congress was willing to accept dominion status despite its being against the Lahore Congress (1929) spirit because

  • It would ensure a peaceful and very quick transfer of power;
  • It was more important for the Congress to assume authority to check the explosive situation; and
  • It would allow for some much needed continuity in bureaucracy and army.

*For Britain, the dominion status offered a chance to keep India in the Commonwealth, even if temporarily, considering the economic strength, defence potential and greater value of trade and investment in India.

Why Congress Accepted Partition? | UPSC – IAS

The Congress was only accepting the inevitable due to the long-term failure to draw Muslim masses into the national movement. The partition reflects the success-failure dichotomy of the Congress-led anti imperialist movement.

  • The Congress had a two fold task— structuring diverse classes, communities, groups and regions into a nation, and Securing independence for this nation.
  • While the Congress succeeded in building up sufficient national consciousness to exert pressure on the British to quit India, it failed in completing the task of welding the nation, especially in integrating the Muslims into the nation.
  • Only an immediate transfer of power could forestall the spread of ‘direct action‘ and communal violence. The virtual collapse of the Interim Government also made the notion of Pakistan appear unavoidable.

The partition plan ruled out independence for the princely states which could have been a greater danger to the Indian unity as it would have meant Balkanisation of the country.

Rationale for an Early Date (August 15, 1947) | UPSC – IAS

Britain wanted to secure Congress’ agreement to the dominion status. At the same time the British could escape the responsibility for the communal situation.

  • Two boundary commissions, one in respect of each province, were constituted to demarcate the boundaries of the new provinces. The referendum in NWFP decided in favour of Pakistan, the Provincial Congress refraining from the referendum. Balochistan and Sindh threw in their lot with Pakistan.

Why are the world’s major deserts located on 20 to 30 degrees of latitude?

As you follow the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, thirty degrees on either side of the equator, you will see, distributed with suspicious regularity an earthy colored band of drylands surrounding the planet, a sere belt averting greener climes: the deserts of the world. They lie in the so-called Horse Latitudes, where constant high-pressure systems drive away the rain clouds.

Why are deserts often located at 30 degrees from the equator ?

There are four major reasons responsible for why the major hot deserts of the world are located between 20° – 30° N on the west of the continents:-

Offshore trade winds

  • Offshore trade winds in the region and location in rain shadow zone – Trade winds that blow in the region, shed their moisture on the eastern  part and by the time they reach the western margin, they become dry.

Anticyclonic conditions

  •  Areas between 20–30 degree latitudes on western margins of continents are the regions of descending air. It means the air gets compressed and warm as it descends and thus the moisture holding capacity keeps decreasing.

Leeward sides of mountains/Parallel mountain ranges

  • In the case of few deserts, mountains are situated as a barrier which prevents orographic rainfall. For example:- presence of Rockies on the western coast of North -America does not let moisture bearing winds do rainfall in leeward sides. In the case of Thar desert in India, Aravallis are situated parallel to the region. Therefore the moisture holding winds pass away from the region because there is absence of mountain barriers.

Presence of cold ocean currents

  • Presence of cold ocean currents along the western coast of continents – tend to stabilise the air over the coast. This prevents cloud formation and rainfall

Wood’s Despatch of 1854 or Magna-Carta of English Education

wood's despatch of 1854 or magna carta of english education in india

wood's despatch of 1854 and its Significance.

Why Wood’s Despatch is called Magna Carta of Indian Education ?

Wood’s Despatch is called Magna-Carta of English Education in India because it professed the promotion of the western education in India. In accordance with Wood’s despatch, Education Departments were established in every province and universities were opened at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1857 on the model of the London University.

  • Later more universities were opened in Punjab in 1882 and at Allahabad 1887

Charles Wood was a British Liberal politician and Member of Parliament. He served as Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1846 to 1852. Later he became the President of the Board of Control of the East India Company. In 1854 he sent the “Wood’s despatch” to the Governor General Lord Dalhousie.

Main provisions of the Wood’s Despatch Act of 1854 are as Follows :-

  • An education department was to be set in every province.
  • Universities on the model of the London University be established in big cities such as Bombay, Calcutta and Madras.
  • At least one government school be opened in every district.
  • Affiliated private schools should be given grant in aid.
  • The Indian natives should be given training in their mother tongue also.

Demerits of the Wood’s Despatch of 1854 are as follows :- (UPSC | IAS | PCS)

  • The Wood’s Despatch could not manage the education system well.
  • Mass education did not become a reality.
  • The grant-in-aid system did not work well as there was paucity of funds and irregularity of the release of funds.
  • The Despatch was more interested in promoting Western knowledge and culture.
  • The Department of Public Instruction could not promote the interest of education and the education in the universities could not be related to Indian conditions.
  • The Despatch did not promote vocational education as was required. in fact, the idea was postponed indefinitely.
  • Women education continued to be neglected.
  • The Despatch produced a class of clerks and accountants but did not develop character and leadership qualities among students

74th Republic day of India 2023 | Do you know, why do we Celebrate ?

70th Republic day of India 2019 Why we Celebrate The Hindu History of republic day

74th Republic day of India on Thu, Jan 26, 2023 | Why do we Celebrate the republic day of India?

74th Republic day of India 2023 | When ? Why Do We Celebrate ?

India will be celebrating its Republic Day on Thu, Jan 26, 2023. Republic Day is celebrated to mark the day when the Indian Constitution came into force.  It is a day to remember when India’s constitution came into force on January 26, 1950, completing the country’s transition toward becoming an independent republic.

Who will hoist the flag on the 74 Republic Day of India in Thu, Jan 26, 2023?

  • President Droupadi Murmu started the ceremony by hoisting the Indian flag, following which the Republic Day Parade began from Rajpath. The parade, held annually on Thu, Jan 26, 2023, starts from Rajpath and ends at Red Fort in Delhi.

Droupadi Murmu is the President of the Republic of India.

About Republic Day of India?

  • Republic Day honors the date on which the Constitution of India came into effect on 26 January 1950, replacing the Government of India Act (1935) as the governing document of India.
  • The Constitution was adopted by the Indian Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949, and came into effect on 26 January 1950 with a democratic government system, completing the country’s transition towards becoming an independent republic.
  • The date 26 January was chosen as Republic day because it was on this day in 1930 when Declaration of Indian Independence (Purna Swaraj) was proclaimed by the Indian National Congress as opposed to the Dominion status offered by British Regime.
  • The main Republic Day Parade gets underway at 9.30 a.m., following the flag hoisting at 9 a.m., on January 26 each year.
  • During India’s first Republic Day celebrations the Indonesian President Sukarno was the chief guest.

1st President of Indonesia

History of Republic Day of India 

  • India achieved independence from British Raj on 15 August 1947 following the Indian independence movement noted for largely peaceful non-violent resistance and civil disobedience led by Mahatma Gandhi.
  • The independence came through the Indian Independence Act 1947, an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that partitioned British India into the two new independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth (later Commonwealth of Nations).
  • India obtained its independence on 15 August 1947 as a constitutional monarchy with George VI as head of state and the Earl Mountbatten as governor-general. The country, though, did not yet have a permanent constitution; instead its laws were based on the modified colonial Government of India Act 1935.
  • On 28 August 1947 the Drafting Committee was appointed to draft a permanent constitution, with Dr B R Ambedkar as chairman. While India’s Independence Day celebrates its freedom from British Rule, the Republic Day celebrates the coming into force of its constitution.
  • A draft constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the Constituent Assembly on 4 November 1947. The Assembly met, in sessions open to the public, for 166 days, spread over a period of two years, 11 months and 18 days before adopting the Constitution.
  • After many deliberations and some modifications, the 308 members of the Assembly signed two hand-written copies of the document (one each in Hindi and English) on 24 January 1950.
  • Two days later, which was on 26 January 1950, it came into effect throughout the whole nation. On that day began Dr. Rajendra Prasad’s first term of office as President of the Indian Union.
  • The Constituent Assembly became the Parliament of India under the transitional provisions of the new Constitution. This date is celebrated in India as Republic Day.