Environmental Chemistry

Biorock technology | Coral Restoration | UPSC – IAS

Biorock technology Coral Restoration electric reef UPSC - IAS

Biorock technology Coral Restoration electric reef UPSC - IAS

Biorock technology | Coral Restoration | UPSC – IAS

Coral reefs are one of the most biologically diverse marine ecosystems on the Earth. Ecologically, coral reefs are important because they are the counterpart to the tropical rain forest in terms of species diversity and biological productivity in the Ocean. Coral reef enables the formation of associated eco-systems which allow the formation of essential habitats, fisheries and livelihoods.

    • Coral reefs are the backbone of life in the oceans.
    • They are a critical part of the web of life on our planet.
  • Biorock is the name given to the substance formed by electro accumulation of minerals dissolved in seawater on steel structures that are lowered onto the sea- bed and are connected to a power source.
  • The technology works by passing a small amount of electrical current through electrodes in the water.
  • When a positively charged anode and negatively charged cathode are placed on the seafloor, with an electric current flowing between them, calcium ions combine with carbonate ions and adhere to the structure (cathode).
  • This results in calcium carbonate formation. Coral larvae adhere to the CaCO3 and grow quickly.
  • The fragments of broken corals are tied to the biorock structure, where they are able to grow at least four to six times faster than their actual growth as they need not spend their energy in building their own calcium carbonate skeletons.
  • A biorock structure was installed one nautical mile off the Mithapur coast in the Gulf of Kachchh

Major threats for the corals | UPSC – IAS

The vast diversity of animal and plant species that contributes to its system and genetic heritage that it represents are increasingly at risk, since the last few decades.

  • Natural: Environmental-Temperature, Sediment Deposition, Salinity, pH, etc.
  • Anthropogenic: Mining, Bottom Fishing, Tourism, pollution, etc.

Coral bleaching | UPSC – IAS

  • Coral bleaching occurs when coral polyps expel algae that live inside their tissues.
  • Coral species live within a relatively narrow temperature margin hence low and high sea temperatures can induce coral bleaching.
  • When corals are exposed to high concentrations of chemical contaminants or pathogens, coral bleaching happens.

Factors responsible for Coral Bleaching | UPSC – IAS

  • Runoff from agricultural land and chemical pollution results in eutrophication and subsequent oxygen depletion.
  • Destructive fishing and boating practices lead to habitat destruction and disintegration of reef ecosystem.
  • Marine Pollution: Incidents such as increase in sea transport, oil spill etc. destroy coral reefs
  • Uncontrolled tourism activities lead to breakage of coral colonies and leads to tissue damage.
  • Coastal construction and shoreline development results in heavy sedimentation, which can lead to coral reef destruction.
  • Introduction of invasive species in ocean by humans too lead to change in the coral ecosystem.
  • Coral mining: Live coral is removed from reefs for use as bricks etc.
  • Ocean acidification- With increased pollution, Carbon Dioxide is absorbed by Ocean leading to rise in Carbonic acid in water. As Coral has Calcium carbonate as main component, it reacts with Carbonic acid and slowly dissolves down.

Consequences of Coral Bleaching | UPSC – IAS

  • It will impact marine ecosystem, as coral reefs are some of the most bio diverse and productive ecosystems.
  • Reefs act as natural barriers to shorelines, protecting them from the effects of moving water. As coral reefs die, coastlines become more susceptible to damage and flooding from storms, hurricanes, and cyclones.
  • Without coral reefs, ocean will not be able to absorb as much CO2, leaving more CO2 in atmosphere.
  • Loss of the coral reefs will have a devastating impact on tropical countries’ economies, food supplies, and safety of their coastal communities.

Measures taken in India | UPSC – IAS

  • Government of India has taken steps to protect its coral reefs under Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Prediction system (COMAPS), Land Ocean Interactions in Coastal zones (LOICZ) and Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM).
  • Government of India has notified Coastal Regulation Zones (CRZ) and has setup National Coastal Zone Management Authority and State Coastal Zone Management Authority to protect coral reefs.
  • Coral Bleaching Alert System (CBAS)- a service initiated from INCOIS uses the satellite derived Sea Surface Temperature (SST) in order to assess the thermal stress accumulated in the coral environs.
  • Coral Reef Recovery Project- is a joint venture of Wildlife Trust of India and the Gujarat Forest Department, supported by Tata Chemicals Limited (TCL).

System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting And Research (SAFAR) | UPSC – IAS

System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting And Research (SAFAR) | UPSC - IAS

System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting And Research (SAFAR) | UPSC - IAS

System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting And Research (SAFAR) | UPSC – IAS

SAFAR is a national initiative introduced by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) to measure the air quality of a metropolitan city, by measuring the overall pollution level and the location-specific air quality of the city.

SAFAR envisages a research based management system where strategies of air pollution mitigation go hand in hand with nation’s economic development to target a win-win scenario.

  • It is first of its kind and most advanced system in India. Such advanced are also proposed to be implemented in other three cities of India- Pune, Mumbai and Ahmedabad.
  • SAFAR was developed indigenously by Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune and operationalized by India Meteorological Department (IMD).
  • The ultimate goal of the project is to increase awareness among the general public regarding the air quality in their city so that appropriate mitigation measures and systematic action can be taken up.
    • It organizes awareness drive by educating the public (prompting self-mitigation), and
    • It also helps the policy-makers to develop mitigation strategies keeping in mind the nation’s economic development.
  • SAFAR is an integral part of India’s first Air Quality Early Warning System operational in Delhi.
    • It monitors all weather parameters like temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed, and wind direction, UV radiation, and solar radiation.
    • Pollutants monitored: PM2.5, PM10, Ozone, Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), Benzene, Toluene, Xylene, and Mercury.
  • SAFAR has giant true colour LED display which gives out real-time air quality index on 24×7 basis with colour coding alongwith 72-hour advance forecast.
  • The World Meteorological Organization has recognized SAFAR as a prototype activity on the basis of the high-quality control and standards maintained in its implementation.
  • Besides health, SAFAR system will benefit cost savings to several other sectors like agriculture, aviation, infrastructure, disaster management skill, tourism and many others, which directly or indirectly get affected by air quality and weather.

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants | UPSC – IAS

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants UPSC - IAS

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants UPSC - IAS

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants | UPSC – IAS

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is an international environmental treaty, signed in 2001 and effective from May 2004, that aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants.

  • Dicofol is used as a miticide on a variety of field crops, fruits, vegetables, ornamentals and tea and coffee and is known to cause skin irritation and hyperstimulation of nerve transmissions in humans as well as being highly toxic to fish, aquatic invertebrates, algae and birds.
  • PFOA is a widely-used industrial chemical used in the production of non-stick cookware and food processing equipment, as well as a surfactant in textiles, carpets, paper, paints and fire-fighting foams. As a substance of very high concern, it is known to be linked to major health problems including kidney cancer, testicular cancer, thyroid disease and hypertension in pregnancy.

Under Stockholm Convention: Listing for elimination of dicofol and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), its salts, and PFOA-related compounds under Annex A of the Convention, which obliges Parties to eliminate these chemicals from use. Key provisions include:-

    • Elimination (Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)  in annex A);
    • Restriction Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)  in annex B) &
    • Reduction or elimination (unintentionally produced POPs in annex C)

More About Stockholm Convention 

  • It’s a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods (POP), become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of humans and wildlife, and have harmful impacts on human health or on the environment.
  • It calls for international action on three categories of POPs:
    • Pesticides,
    • Industrial chemicals, and
    • Unintentionally produced POPs.
  • It requires parties to prevent the development of new POPs and promote best available techniques (BAT) and best environmental practices (BEP) for replacing existing POPs.
  • In 2001, it originally covered the 12 POPs of greatest concern, called the “dirty dozen:”aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, dioxins, endrin, furans, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex, PCBs, and toxaphene. Another 16 additional chemicals were added to the treaty in 2017.

Where are Persistent Organic Pollutants found? | UPSC – IAS

POPs are found everywhere in the world in measurable amounts.

  • Food – fish, shellfish, or wild foods in which POPs have bio-accumulated
  • Air – indoors and outdoors, cigarette and secondhand smoke, and vehicle exhaust
  • Consumer products – pesticides, insecticides, cigarettes, and some paints

Peatland its Significance and threats | UPSC- IAS

Peatland its Significance and threats UPSC- IAS

Peatland its Significance and threats UPSC- IAS

Peatland its Significance and threats | UPSC- IAS

Peat, also known as turf, is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter. It is unique to natural areas called peatlands, bogs, mires, moors, or muskegs. Peats are a heterogeneous mixture of plant material (vascular plants, mosses and humus) that had accumulated in a water-saturated area and are only partially decomposed due to absence of oxygen.

Some Uses of Peat are as follows:-

  • Peat is used in water filtration, such as for the treatment of septic tank effluent and for urban runoff. Also widely used in balneotherapy (the use of bathing to treat disease).
  • Peat is sometimes used in freshwater aquaria. It is seen most commonly in soft water or blackwater river systems such as those mimicking the Amazon River basin.

They are mostly found in permafrost regions towards the poles and at-

  • High altitudes,
  • In coastal areas,
  • Beneath tropical rainforest and
  • In boreal forests.

Countries with largest peatland areas are – Russia, Canada, Indonesia, USA, Finland etc.

Several multilateral conventions take peatland into consideration such as:-  UNFCCC, Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, Convention on Biodiversity and United Nation Convention to Combat Desertification.

  • Brazzaville Declaration: was signed to promote better management and conservation of Cuvette Centrale Region in Congo Basin in the backdrop of the 3rd Conference of Partners of the Global Peatlands Initiative (GPI), 2018.
  • Global Peatlands Initiative: is an effort by leading experts and institutions to save peatlands as the world’s largest terrestrial organic carbon stock and to prevent it being emitted into the atmosphere. It is led by UN Environment.

Significance of Peatland | UPSC – IAS

Peatlands are highly significant to global efforts to combat climate change, as well as wider sustainable development goals. The protection and restoration of peatlands is vital in the transition towards a low-carbon and circular economy.

  • Carbon Storage: Although they cover less than 3% of the global surface, estimates suggest that peatlands contain twice as much carbon as in the world’s forest.
  • Supporting water cycle: They regulate water flow, exert a cooling effect during hot periods through evaporation and cloud formation, play an important role in retention of pollutants and nutrients and water purification, counteract eutrophication of water bodies and also prevent intrusion of saltwater.
  • Supporting unique and critically threatened biodiversity: The tropical peatlands are home to a number of endangered species, including Sumatran tigers, gorillas and orangutans.
  • Supporting livelihood: They are source of berries, mushrooms and medicinal plants in boreal and temperate regions and of non-timber forest products in tropical regions. Even the peat itself is used as fuel.
  • As a cultural landscape and archive: They hold some of the most evocative archeological discoveries of last decades such as 4th millennium BCE footpath ‘sweet tracks’. They also record environmental changes.

Threats to Peatlands | UPSC – IAS

  • Drainage for agriculture: Drained peatlands are mainly used for agriculture and forestry, and peat is extracted for horticulture and energy production. CO2 emissions from drained peatlands are estimated at 1.3 gigatonnes of CO2 annually. This is equivalent to 5.6% of global anthropogenic CO2 emissions.
  • Commercial Forestry: It is the second greatest cause of land-use changes in peatland mostly prevalent in Scandinavian countries, UK, Russia, South-East Asia etc.
  • Peat extraction and usage: Peat as a source of energy is being used on a large scale by households. It is also used as raw material for producing growing media for professional horticulture and for home gardening.
  • Infrastructure Development: Conversion of peatlands in coastal areas to meet the urban development, waste disposal needs, development of roads and other infrastructure.
  • What happens when peatlands are degraded or destroyed – Peatland destruction leads to releasing vast amounts of CO2; – Burning, draining, and degrading peat bogs emits carbon dioxide equivalent to more than one tenth of the global emissions released from burning fossil fuels.

A Way forward | UPSC – IAS

  • A landscape approach is vital and good practices in peatland management and restoration must be shared and implemented across all peatland landscapes to save these threatened ecosystems and their services to people.
    • Rewetting: It is an essential step in the restoration of Peatlands as they rely on waterlogged conditions for their survival.
    • Plaudiculture and sustainable management techniques: It is a practice of crop production on wet soils, predominantly in peatlands. Other sustainable techniques could be cultivation of fish or pursuit of ecotourism.
  • Legal and Fiscal environment and Policies: Various policies that have been put in place both at global as well domestic levels should be implemented properly.
    • Local communities should receive support to sustainably manage their peatlands by preserving traditional non-destructive uses and introducing innovative management alternatives.
  • Creating a market to finance peatland management: Using Funding mechanism such as Green Bonds, private capital (equity and debt), funding from government sources etc.
  • Institutional framework for coordinated action: Integrated global partnerships should be established.
  • Restricting new agriculture & industrial activities that threaten their long-term viability and developing long-term land use policies which favour conservation and protection of peatlands.
  • Capacity building: Focused action is required with support from developed countries for capacity building, outreach and awareness raising.
  • A comprehensive mapping of peatlands worldwide is essential to better understanding their extent and status, and to enable us to safeguard them.

Climate Change and International Security Issue | UPSC

Climate Change and International Security Issue UPSC IAS PCS Gk today

Climate Change and International Security Issue UPSC IAS PCS Gk today

Why Climate Change is a security issue? | UPSC IAS

Many Scholars declared Climate Change as Warming War which requires intervention of United Nation Security Council as per its mandate under article 39 of UN charter. The Warming War is a metaphor (like Cold War) which conveys how climate change acts as a driver of such conflict, as its impacts accumulate and multiply to threaten the security of human life on earth.

Article 39 of UN charter – The Security Council shall determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression and shall make recommendations, or decide what measures shall be taken to maintain or restore international peace and security.

Climate Change as a Security Issue | UPSC IAS

  • Earth’s limited resources are under pressure as demand for food, water, and energy is increasing. Widespread unemployment, rapid urbanization, and environmental degradation can cause persistent inequality, political marginalization, and unresponsive governments leading to instability and conflict.
  • In above context United Nation Environment Program has identified seven factors where climate change acts as threat multiplier to security and peace of states and society.
  • Local resource competition: As pressure on local resources is increasing, competition can lead to instability and even violent conflict in absence for proper dispute resolution.
  • Livelihood insecurity and Migration
    • Climate change will increase the insecurity of farmers who depend on natural resources for livelihood. It could push them to migrate and turn to informal and illegal source of income.
    • As per World Bank estimates by 2050, about 140 million people will be forced to leave their place of origin in South Asia, Africa and Latin America.
  • Extreme weather events and disasters: Disasters will exacerbate fragile situation and can increase people vulnerabilities and grievances especially in countries affected by conflict.
  • Volatile food price
    • Climate change is likely to disrupt food production in many regions, increase prices, market volatility and heightening risk of protest, rioting and civil conflicts.
    • As per IPCC assessment by 2080 there will be 770 million undernourished people by 2080 due to climate change.
  • Transboundary water management
    • It is a frequent source of tension. As demand grows and climate impact affects availability and quality, competition over water use will likely exert pressure at local, regional and global level.
    • According to recently released Hindu Kush-Himalayan Assessment report with current emission level two-third of glaciers in the region will be lost by 2100 and cause water crisis for 2 billion people.
  • Sea level rise and coastal degradation
    • Rising sea level will threaten the viability of low lying areas even before they are submerged, leading to social disruption, displacement and migration. Also, disagreement over maritime boundaries and ocean resources may increase.
    • As per IPCC 5th assessment report sea level rise can be 52-98 cm by 2100.
  • Unintended effects of climate change: As the climate adaptation and mitigation policies are more broadly implemented, the risks of unintended negative effects-particularly in fragile regions will also increase. In countries with poor institutional capacity and governance, this may lead to immense political pressure and ultimately civil war.

Reason for support of UNSC intervention | UPSC IAS

  • If the UNSC declares the impacts of climate change an international threat then military and non-military sanctions could be invoked.
  • The sanctions would be available to the council in the event of states not meeting their Paris Agreement obligations. Economic sanctions could also be placed upon corporations that currently operate with relatively little international scrutiny.
  • Supporters of such declaration cites slow and ineffective progress of climate negotiations (under UNFCCC) and demand a rapid response to decreasing GHG emissions to stop temperature rise below 2°C. It’ll bring element of coercion in climate agreements.
  • These measures could include the deployment of peacekeeping forces and increased humanitarian assistance surrounding direct and indirect climate induced crises.

Montreal Protocol: Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion | UPSC – IAS

Montreal Protocol: Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: UPSC IAS

 

Montreal Protocol: Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: UPSC IAS

Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion | UPSC – IAS

The quadrennial (four-yearly) review of the Montreal Protocol reveals a healing ozone layer, global warming reduction potential, and options for more ambitious climate action.

Key findings of the Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion | UPSC – IAS

  • Actions taken under the Montreal Protocol have led to decreases in the atmospheric abundance of controlled ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) and the start of the recovery of stratospheric ozone.
  • The atmospheric abundances of both total tropospheric chlorine and total tropospheric bromine from long-lived ODSs controlled under the Montreal Protocol have continued to decline since the 2014 Assessment. Outside the Polar Regions, upper stratospheric ozone layer has recovered at a rate of 1-3% per decade since 2000.
  • The Antarctic ozone hole is recovering, while continuing to occur every year. As a result of the Montreal Protocol much more severe ozone depletion in the Polar Regions has been avoided.
  • At projected rates, Northern Hemisphere and mid-latitude ozone is scheduled to heal completely (i.e. equivalent to 1980 values) by the 2030s followed by
    the Southern Hemisphere in the 2050s and Polar Regions by 2060.
  • The Kigali Amendment is projected to reduce future global average warming in 2100 due to hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) from a baseline of 0.3–0.5 degree Celsius to less than 0.1 degree Celsius.

Key findings of the Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion 2018 UPSC - IAS PCS UPPSC UPPCS

Ozone change and its influence on climate | UPSC – IAS

  • Ozone is important in the climate system and its changes can influence both the troposphere and the stratosphere.
  • Influence on stratospheric climate: Decreases in stratospheric ozone caused by ODS increases have been an important contributor to observed stratospheric cooling.
    • New studies find that ODSs thereby contributed approximately one third of the observed cooling in the upper stratosphere from 1979 to 2005, with two thirds caused by increases in other GHGs.
  • Influence on surface climate and oceans: Lower stratospheric cooling due to ozone depletion has very likely been the dominant cause of late 20th century changes in Southern Hemisphere climate in summer. These changes include the observed poleward shift in Southern Hemisphere tropospheric circulation, with associated impacts on surface temperature and precipitation.
  • Changes in tropospheric circulation driven by ozone depletion have contributed to recent trends in Southern Ocean temperature and circulation; the impact on Antarctic sea ice remains unclear.

Future Global Ozone changes | UPSC – IAS

The key drivers of future ozone levels continue to be declining ODS concentrations, upper stratospheric cooling because of increased GHGs, and the possible strengthening of the Brewer-Dobson circulation (a model which attempts to explain how tropical air has less ozone than polar air, even though the tropical stratosphere is where most atmospheric ozone is produced) from climate change.

  • CO2, CH4, and N2O will be the main drivers of 60°S–60°N stratospheric ozone changes in the second half of the 21st century. These gases impact both chemical cycles and the stratospheric overturning circulation, with a larger response in stratospheric ozone associated with stronger climate forcing.
  • Given that ODS levels are expected to decline slowly in coming years, a large enhancement of stratospheric sulphate aerosol in the next decades would result in additional chemical ozone losses. Possible sources of additional stratospheric sulphate aerosol include volcanic eruptions (like Mt. Pinatubo in 1991) and geoengineering.

Why Montreal Protocol Worked ? | UPSC – IAS

The Montreal Protocol is one of the most successful and effective environmental treaties ever negotiated and implemented. No single factor led to its success.

  • Approach of Cooperation: From the start, negotiation relied heavily on leadership and innovative approaches. Much negotiation was held in small, informal groups. This enabled a genuine exchange of views and the opportunity to take some issues on trust, such as the subsequent development of the Multilateral Fund. The people negotiating the treaty also included scientists, which lent credibility.
  • Principles based: The “precautionary principle”, and the concept of common, but differentiated, responsibility took root in the Montreal Protocol when developing countries were given longer time to phase-out ODS.
  • Flexibility to accommodate newer information: This flexibility meant the protocol could be amended to include stricter controls: more ozone-depleting substances added to the control list and total phase-out, rather than partial phase-out, called for. Starting out modestly also encouraged a greater confidence in the process.
  • Trade Provisions and restrictions: These limited the signatories to trade only with other signatories. This increasingly limited the supplies of CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS) to non-signatories countries which forced them to ratify the Protocol.
  • Clear List of Targeted Sectors: The chemicals and sectors (refrigeration, primarily) involved are clearly articulated. This let governments prioritise the main sectors early.
  • Incentive to Industry: The Montreal Protocol also provided a stable framework that allowed industry to plan long-term research and innovation. Transitioning to newer, reasonably priced formulations with lower- or no-ozone depleting potential benefited the environment and industry.
  • Institutional Support: Another feature of the protocol has been the expert, independent Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (and its predecessors). These have helped signatories reach solid and timely decisions on often-complex matters. They have given countries confidence to start their transition.
  • The Multilateral Fund has been another reason for the protocol’s success.
    • It provides incremental funding for developing countries to help them meet their compliance targets.
    • Significantly, it has also provided institutional support. This helps countries build capacity within their governments to implement phase-out activities and establish regional networks so they can share experiences and learn from each other.