Agriculture – GOI

About land holding in India | UPSC – IAS

land holding in India | UPSC - IAS

land holding in India | UPSC - IAS

About Land Holding in India | UPSC – IAS

Land is the basic means of production in an agrarian society without which no agricultural production can take place. Two aspects of land that affect the agriculture efficiency are:-

  • Size and distribution of land holdings, and
  • Land tenure system.

Landholding is defined as the area of land which a person or a family owns. It could be one piece of land or a number of small scattered pieces of land. At the time of independence, what prevailed were division, subdivision, and fragmentation of landholdings. In every country, the land tenure system is very important for the development of agriculture. According to the Vera Anstey, “The position of agriculture and agricultural production in any country is dependent, to a large extent, upon the relationship between the land-holding and land ownership in that country.”

Hence this post includes the following aspects:-

  • Land Tenancy
  • Size of Land Holdings and Fragmentation of Fields
  • Consolidation of Land Holdings
  • Ceiling on Land Holdings
  • Land Holdings Distribution in India

Land Tenancy | UPSC – IAS

  • Land Tenancy is an institutional factor which affects agriculture development. Land Tenancy means temporary possession of ownership of land by a tenant. The ownership of agricultural land is determined by the law of Land tenure and Land Tenancy.
  • The main problem in relation of farming in India is the relationship between the landlord, the cultivator and the government. The landlord and the cultivator may be two separate persons, or the same person may own and cultivate the land. The landlord is also related to the government and is responsible for the payment of land revenue. Therefore, the relationship between the landlord, the cultivator, and the government is known as the “Land tenure system” or as the ‘Cultivation Tenure system’.
  • A land or cultivation tenure system refers to the possession of rights for the use of land. There may be many different situations in which the cultivator has rights over the land. At one extreme of such situation is ownership, where the farmer himself is the owner or the landlord. On the other extreme is the landless agricultural labourer. There are many intermediate system between these two, such as cropping tenant cultivators, non tenant cultivators, sub-cultivator, etc.
  • The land tenure system has a major effect on the efficiency of the farmer, and also on the insecurity involved in the cultivation of land. Before the advent of British rule, the land tenure system in India was static. The system implemented by the British also did not encourage economic development in any way. So, during the period of the British rule, the main aim of the land tenure system was to generate income. But, under this system, no efforts were made towards any economic development and the upliftment of the farmers. In India at the time of independence, there were three main land tenure systems. They are, –
    • The Ryotwari system,
    • The Mahalwari System and
    • The Zamindari system.

Size of Land Holdings and Fragmentation of Fields | UPSC – IAS

  • In India the size of land holdings is too small. This is due to overpopulation. Due to the rapid growth of population and the existing law of inheritance, the agricultural land is divided equally among the male children of the deceased farmer.
  • At present, the per capita available land is only about 0.10 hectare. This is much below the world average of about 4.50 hectares. Over 75% of the land holding are less than one hectare. Such small holdings are not economically viable. In fact, small holdings cannot produce enough to meet the costs of irrigation, improved seeds, chemical fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides and farm machinery.
  • Another important feature of land holdings is that each of the 105 million holdings comprises 4 to 8 plots scattered far away from each other around the farmer’s village. The average size of each plot is not more than one-fifth of a hectare. This type of fragmentation of land poses one of the most serious obstacles to any efforts to increase agricultural productivity in India.
  • Here fragmentation refers to division, and in agricultural point of view it can be defined as, a situation under which a cultivator owns an operational holding consisting of more than one plot of land. Therefore, the fragmented land has been considered as comprising of two or more plots of land which may be separated from one another. These repeated subdivision and fragmentation of land are major problems affecting agriculture. Division of land into equal lots among settlers is followed by further subdivision. Continuous growth of population has further forced the problem as it became necessary to break up and distribute common lands. Hence this system of inheritance made such problems still more worse.

Effects of Fragmentation

There are lots of disadvantages from fragmentation of land. They are,

  • Most of the labour of the farmer and his animals is exhausted in journey from one plot to another.
  • Most of the time of the farmer is lost in shifting animals, fertilizers, seeds and other equipments.
  • A good proportion of cultivated land is wasted in boundaries, hedges, ditches, footpaths, etc.
  • the use of modern farm machinery in small fragments is virtually impossible in the fragmented land.
  • It is responsible for increased overhead costs, including even the cost of production resulting in low returns from agriculture.

Consolidation of Land Holdings | UPSC – IAS

It is important to know that farms in India are not only small in size but also distributed in a scattered way. Unless the farm-land is of reasonable size, farmers cannot make proper use of their resources. In the interest of progressive farming, it is essential that the farmer be given one consolidated piece of land. Hence, the conversion of many small and fragmented holdings in to one or two big farms is called Consolidation of Land Holdings.

Methods of Consolidation

Two methods of consolidation have been adopted in India. They are,

  • Voluntary consolidation: If the farmer agrees voluntarily to get his holdings consolidated, it is called voluntary consolidation. The process of voluntary consolidation in India was first initiated in 1921 in Punjab. It is found to be the best method, as no pressure is exerted on anybody. The work of co-operative consolidation society does not lead to any dispute, but its progress is very slow. Zamindars usually create hurdles in its progress. Laws of favoring voluntary consolidation have been passed in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Bengal.
  • Compulsory Consolidation: When consolidation is made compulsory by law, it is called compulsory consolidation. It may be of two types:

Partial Compulsion: Under this, if a majority of farmers in a village agree to get their holdings get consolidated, then the rest of the farmers too will have to get their holdings consolidated, according to the law.

Complete Compulsion: In this case, the government by legislative enactment introduces an element of compulsion in the process of consolidation. Maharashtra was the first state to enact compulsory consolidation. Now in many states have also passed laws to this effect.

Advantages and Disadvantages of land Consolidation | UPSC – IAS

Advantages of consolidation

  • Scientific methods of cultivation become possible on consolidated land.
  • Time, effort and money wasted in moving from one farm to the other are saved.
  • The farmer feels encouraged to spend money on the improvement of his land.
  • No land is wasted in making boundaries.
  • Irrigation can be done efficiently.

Disadvantages of Consolidation

There are many difficulties in consolidation. The notable ones are:

  • Lack of records: In many areas records showing title to the land are not available.
  • Lack of trained staff: Consolidation work is a technical work, it requires trained persons. Such trained staff is lacking.
  • Expenditure: It is an expensive operation. It is a problem to meet this expenditure.
  • Differences in the Land value: One of the main difficulties pointed out by the Fourth Five Year Plan was variation in the price of land in the villages. This variation is chiefly due to irrigation facilities. In brief, consolidation of land holdings reduces the problem of fragmentation of holdings. While doing so, the size of the farms is enlarged. Hence, it t helps in increasing agricultural production.

Ceiling on Land Holdings | UPSC – IAS

Ceiling on land holdings mean fixation of maximum size of holdings and to take away surplus land, if any, for distribution among others. Land over and above the ceiling limit is called as surplus land, and such surplus land is taken from the landlord on payment of compensation. This surplus land is distributed among small farmers, tenants, landless labourers. The objectives of ceiling on land holdings are;-

  • To minimize inequality in the ownership and use of land so as to provide social benefit to all.
  • To reduce inequality of income from agriculture.
  • To provide self-employment opportunities to agricultural labourers.
  • To satisfy the desire to own land.

Ceiling on land holdings is of two kinds. They are:-

  • Ceilings on Existing Holdings: In this case ceiling is imposed on the present holdings. Land above the ceiling limit is declared surplus and taken by the government.
  • Ceilings on Future Acquisition of Land: Under this, ceiling is fixed on the land that an individual or a family may acquire in future with a view to enlarging their existing holdings.

Progress of Ceilings on Land Holdings: In almost all states of the country ceiling on land has been fixed. In case of irrigated land, land ceiling varies from 4 to 7 hectares; while in case of dry land ceiling varies from 8 to 70 hectares. So far 73.36 lakh hectares of land has been declared surplus.

Advantages of Ceilings on land holdings | UPSC – IAS

  • Reduction in Inequality: Supply of land being limited and its demand being unlimited, it becomes essential that land should be divided among larger number of people. When all farmers get some land, inequality in the distribution of land gets reduced. Agriculture being the main source of income in villages, there will be reduction in income inequality and social inequality as well.
  • Development of Cooperation: It will promote spirit of cooperation among villagers because the land available after imposition of ceiling, can be cultivated on cooperative basis.
  • Increase in cultivated area: Large tracts of land belonging to big zamindars remain uncultivated. When these lands handed over to landless labourers, it may bring them under cultivation. As a result, total cultivated area in the country will increase.
  • More Production: Equal distribution of land may also encourage intensive cultivation resulting in increased agricultural production. Farm management studies conducted in India testified that small farms yielded more production per hectare. It is so because family members themselves cultivate small farms.
  • Increase in Employment: Fixation of ceiling on land holdings is expected to increase employment. On one side, landless farmers get some land for cultivation. On the other, there will be more demand for goods owing to increase in the income of the farmers. To meet the increased demand, more labourers are to be employed.
  • Economic size of holding: Land declared surplus consequent upon ceiling on land holdings could be distributed among small farmers turning their holdings in to economic holdings.
  • Decrease in Class Struggle: With reduction in inequality among the villagers, possibility of class struggle will be minimized. They will live with perfect peace and harmony.
  • Advantages to landless labourers: If ceiling on land holdings is fixed at lower levels in all states, then huge surplus land will be available. It will provide basic holdings to most of the landless labourers. Evaluation: As a result of ceiling on land holdings, roughly 160 lakh hectares of land was likely to be made available as surplus land. However, only 73.36 lakh hectares of land has been declared as surplus. Thus, progress in this direction is very slow.

Land Holdings Distribution in India | UPSC – IAS

  • India is a big country and also called as sub continent. The government of India categorizes farmers with less than 1 ha of land as “marginal” and those with 1-2 ha as “small” farmers. Almost 20% of the survey households were landless and 42.7% had marginal or sub marginal landholding, thus fragmentation of landholdings was high.
  • Data from land and livestock surveys conducted by the National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) are the most important source of information on distribution of landholdings in India. As part of these surveys, detailed data are collected on ownership and operational holdings, tenancy, nature of land use, status of irrigation, and cropping pattern.
  • The distribution of ownership holding of land in India is extremely unequal. In many states of India, a substantial share of land continues to be in the hands of large landowners (having more than say five hectares of land). States that are particularly noteworthy in this context are Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Clearly, a substantial potential for land redistribution exists in these states. It may be noted that large landholding sizes in Rajasthan and in parts of some other states in central and western India are also associated with poor quality of land. In contrast, in Kerala, West Bengal and Tripura, three states where substantial land reforms have been implemented, a very small amount of land is now under large holdings.
  • Since independence, in India, a number of steps have been taken to make structural changes in the agrarian societies and land reforms. The Kumarappa Committee, also known as the Congress Committee of Agrarian Reforms, recommended:-
    • Comprehensive measures for land distribution,
    • Creation of basic holdings,
    • Tenancy reforms,
    • Organization of small cooperative reforms and
    • minimum agricultural wages.

But so powerful was the lobby of the big and middle class peasants that the recommendations were shelved. The enthusiasm for land ceiling is much greater now, but it is doubtful whether the results will be encouraging. We all know that, what is socially justified may not be economically efficient and politically acceptable.

About the White Revolution or Operation Flood in India | UPSC – IAS

Features of Operation Flood or White revolution in india upsc

Features of Operation Flood or White revolution in india upsc

White Revolution in India its Objectives, Phases and Achievements | UPSC – IAS

Operation Flood is the program that led to “The White Revolution.“ White revolution is associated with the package programme adopted to increase the production of milk is known as White Revolution in India.

  • Behind Amul products lies a successful history of cooperative dairy farming in India. Verghese Kurien, nicknamed the ‘Milkman of India’ & father of “White Revolution in India”, played a crucial role in the story of Gujarat Cooperative Milk and Marketing Federation Ltd that launched Amul. Based in Anand, a town in Gujarat,
  • Amul is a dairy cooperative movement joined by about 2 and half million milk producers in Gujarat. The Amul pattern became a uniquely appropriate model for rural development and poverty alleviation ,spurring what has come to be known as the White Revolution.

Operation Flood 1970 as a rural development programme

Operation Flood organised:- Cooperatives of milk producers into a nationwide milk grid, with the purpose of increasing milk production, bringing the producer and consumer closer by eliminating middlemen, and assuring the producers a regular income throughout the year.

  • Operation Flood was, however, not just a dairy programme. It saw dairying as a path to development, for generating employment and income for rural households and alleviating poverty.
  • The number of members of the cooperative has continued to increase with the numbers of women members and Women’s Dairy Cooperative Societies also increasing significantly.

Objectives of the Operation Flood | UPSC – IAS

  • The main objectives of the co-operative society is the procurement, transportation, storage of milk at the chilling plants.
  • To provide cattle feed.
  • The production of wide varieties of milk products and their marketing management.
  • The societies also provide superior breeds of cattle (cows and buffaloes), health service, veterinary treatment, and artificial insemination facilities.
  • To provide extension service.

Note – The program was so successful that by 1998, It made India the world’s largest milk producer, doubled the milk available for each person, and increased milk output four-fold in 30 years

Phases of the Operation Flood from 1970 – 2000

Phase one from 1970-81

  • During this period, the dairy development programme was set up in ten states to provide milk to the cosmopolitan cities, i.e. Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, and Chennai. The important step in this phase was the setting up of 4 Mother Dairies in Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, and Chennai.

Phase second from 1981-85

  • During this phase, the dairy development programme was extended in the states of Karmataka, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan. In this phase, within 25 contiguous milk-shed areas (in 155 districts) a cluster of milk producers’ union was established.
  • The Research Institute at Hyderabad developed a vaccine called ‘Raksha’ to control cattle diseases. The programme also involved the improvement in milk marketing in 144 more cities o f the country. The Dairy Co-operative societies were set up in 35,000 villages and the membership exceeded 36 lakhs.

Phase third from 1985-2000

  • A number of co-operative societies were set up in most of the major states of the country and the number of co-operatives went up by 1,35,439 with a membership of 14 million . The following table 9.16 shows the spurt in milk production in India

Achievements of Operation Flood or White Revolution | UPSC – IAS

  • The White Revolution made a sound impact on rural masses and encouraged them to take up dairying as a subsidiary occupation.
  • The per capita availability of milk per day at present is about 263 gm as against 125 grams before the White Revolution.
  • The import of milk and milk production has been reduced substantially.
  • India has become the leading producer of milk in the world.
  • To improve the quality of livestock, extensive cross breeding has been launched.
  • For ensuring the maintenance of disease-free status, major health schemes have been initiated.
  • The government implemented livestock insurance on pilot basis in 2005-06.
  • The number of members of the cooperative has continued to increase with the numbers of women members and Women’s Dairy Cooperative Societies also increasing significantly.

Problems and Prospects of Operation Flood or White Revolution | UPSC – IAS

Some of the important problems of the White Revolution are as under:-

  • Collection of milk from the remote areas is expensive, time consuming, and not viable economically.
  • In most of the villages the cattle are kept under unhygienic conditions.
  • There are inadequate marketing facilities. The marketing infrastructure needs much improvement.
  • The breeds of cattle is generally inferior.
  • The extension service programme is not effective.

Green Revolution its Socio economic and Ecological Implications | UPSC – IAS

Green Revolution its Socio economic and Ecological Implications UPSC - IAS UPPSC UP PCS

Green Revolution its Socio economic and Ecological Implications UPSC - IAS UPPSC UP PCS

Green Revolution its Socio economic and Ecological Implications | UPSC – IAS

The meaning of Green Revolution may be taken as, the adoption and diffusion of new seeds of wheat and rice has been considered as a significant achievement as it offered great optimism. In fact, these varieties of seeds have revolutionised the agricultural landscape of the developing countries and the problem of food shortage has been reduced.
  • “Civilization as it is known today could not have evolved, nor can it survive, without an adequate food supply.” – by Norman Borlaug (Father of Green Revolution in the world)
  • “Almost certainly, however, the first essential component of social justice is adequate food for all mankind”  –  by Norman Borlaug (Father of Green Revolution in the world)
Merits of the High Yielding Varieties (seeds)
  • Shorter Life Cycle
  • Economise on Irrigation Water
  • Generate more Employment
  • Easy to Adopt
  • New seeds are less resistant to droughts and floods and need an efficient management of water, chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides
When the new seeds were diffused in the mid-sixties, it was expected that the problems of food shortage, unemployment, poverty, hunger, malnutrition, undernourishment, and regional inequalities will be largely solved. But these objectives could not be fully achieved.
  • Geographical Constraints- Soil fertility decreases; sugarcane,wheat and rice are soil exhaustive crop; rotation of crops decreases ,practice of fallowing (not planted trees in order to increase fertility to soil)  abandoned.

Environmental and Ecological Implications of Green Revolution | UPSC – IAS

Environmental and ecological problems that emerged out of the cultivation of the High Yielding Varieties are
  • Depletion of forests, Deforestation
  • Salinization,
  • Water-logging,
  • Depletion of underground water-table,
  • Soil erosion,
  • Decline in soil fertility, (pollution)
  • Health hazards
  • Noise Pollution

Salinization

  • The continuous supply of moisture through irrigation during the summer and winter seasons have changed the soil chemistry. In the arid and semi-arid areas, owing to capillary action, the soils are becoming either acidic or alkaline.
  • The saline and alkaline affected tracts, locally known as kallar or thur in Punjab and kallar or reh in Uttar Pradesh have expanded and increased in area
  • According to one estimate, about 50 percent of the total arable land of Punjab and Haryana has been harmed by soluble salts.

Solution of salinization

  • The problem of salinity and alkalinity can be solved by use of manure  (cow-dung, compost, and green manure) and by a judicious selection of leguminous crops in the crop rotation.
  • Cultivation of salt tolerant crops like barley, sugar-beet, salt grass, asparagus, spinach , and tomato may also help to a great extent and may improve the fertility of such lands.

Waterlogging

  • Water-logging is the other major problem associated with over-irrigation . In all the canal irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh, water-logging is a serious problem.
For Example:-
  • The Indira Gandhi Canal command area is a recent example in which water-logging is progressively becoming a serious menace to the arable land several thousand acres of productive agricultural land and pastures in the districts of Ganganagar, Bikaner, and jaisalmer (Rajasthan) have been submerged under water
  • progressive and ambitious cultivators of the irrigated areas of these districts have changed their cropping patterns and have introduced rice and wheat in place of bajra, pulses, cotton , and fodder. Repeated irrigation of these crops in the summer and winter seasons have resulted into waterlogged condition, especially along the canals.

Soil Erosion

  • Soil erosion is a universal phenomena. It may be observed to some extent in all parts of the country, its intensity, however, is more in the arid, semi-arid, and mountainous areas.
  • The presence of forests reduces the danger of soil erosion significantly. In recent years, the agricultural area has been expanded by indiscriminate felling of trees. The increase in the rate of soil erosion is not only damaging the agricultural lands, it is also affecting adversely the areas where the eroded soil is deposited.

Solution of Soil Erosion

  • In order to minimize the danger of soil erosion, afforestation is imperative. Moreover, the farmers should apply more manures and develop windbreakers in the desert areas.
  • Development of terraces in the hills, leveling of gullies, and contour ploughing in the hilly areas can also go a long way in reducing soil erosion.

Decline in soil fertility  (Pollution)

  • The High Yielding Varieties perform better if heavy doses of chemical fertiliser, insecticides, and pesticides are applied. Application of heavy doses, of these inputs destroy the micro-organisms which are so necessary to maintain the fertility of the soil.

Solution to overcome soil pollution

The use of manures in place of chemical fertilisers can go a long way in overcoming the problem of soil pollution

Lowering of the Underground Water-Table

  • The High Yielding Varieties of rice and wheat are water-relishing crops. The continuous lifting of water through tube-wells and pumping sets has lowered the water Table in the eastern districts of Haryana.
  • Many farmers have to lower their tube-wells in the years of inadequate monsoon rainfall. If the cropping pattern is not changed, and irrigation of rice and wheat continues at the present level, the underground water-table may not be sufficiently recharged and may get substantially depleted
  • In opposition to this, the underground water-table in western Haryana is rising as there is a gypsum layer in that part of the state which does not permit the percolation of water through this layer the water-table in the Jhajjar District of Haryana has risen significantly.
  • The crops of millets, bajra, arhar are damaged. In fact, people in this district pray for drought so that the waterlogged areas may be sown. Consequently, there are waterlogged conditions in several tracts in the western parts of Haryana. This rise in the water-table is resulting into capillary action, leading to the occurrence of saline and alkaline formations

Deforestation

  • There had been heavy felling of trees to bring the forest area under cultivation. In Punjab and Haryana, less than 5 percent of their area is under forest. This is affecting the environment and ecology adversely.
Noise Pollution
  • The change in the agricultural technology, the use of tractors, terracers, harvesters, threshers, and crushers have increased noise pollution which have disturbed the rural tranquility.
Health Hazards
  • Application of heavy doses of insecticides, pesticides, and chemical fertilisers are health hazards. The application of these poisons on vegetables, fruits and grasses are health hazards.
  • The Indian Council of Medical Research established that traces of lead, zinc and copper are found in the milk and vegetables on which the fertilisers, insecticides, and pesticides  are sprayed.
  • The recurrence of malaria in irrigated tracts of arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan and Punjab is the result of heavy irrigation and water-logged tracts along the canal which have become the breeding grounds for mosquitoes

Positive and Negative Impact of Green Revolution in india | UPSC – IAS

Green Revolution Achievements and Benefits

The diffusion of High Yielding Varieties has transformed the rural landscape. The main achievements of Green Revolution may be summarized as under:

  • The production and productivity of wheat, rice, maize, and bajra has increased substantially.
  • India has become almost self sufficient in the matter of staple foods.
  • The double cropped area has increased, thereby intensification of the Indian agriculture has increased.
  • In the areas where Green Revolution is a success, the farmers have moved from subsistence to market oriented economy, especially in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, and the plain districts of Uttarakhand (Haridwar and udham singh nagar.
  • The adoption of High Yielding Varieties under the Green Revolution has generated more rural and urban employment.
  • Green Revolution has increased the income of farmers and landless labourers, especially that of the big farmers and the semi-skilled rural workers. Thus Green Revolution has increased rural prosperity.
  • Green Revolution has created jobs in the areas of biological (seed fertilisers) innovations, and repair of agricultural equipments and machinery.

Negative effects of Green Revolution & Problems and Prospects | UPSC – IAS

What are the major adverse effects of the green revolution?

Although the Green Revolution had several benefits, there were also some issues associated with this period that affected both the environment and society. The use of chemical fertilizers and synthetic herbicides and pesticides dramatically influenced the environment by increasing pollution and erosion

  • Depletion of soil owing to the continuous cultivation of soil exhaustive crops like rice and wheat.
  • Depletion of underground water table due to over-irrigation of more moisture requiring crops like rice and wheat.
  • Green Revolution has increased the income disparity amongst the farmers.
  • Green Revolution led to polarisation of the rural society. It has created three types of conflicts in the rural community, namely, between large and small farmers, between owner and tenant farmers, between the employers and employees on agricultural farms.
  • Green Revolution has displaced the agricultural labourers, leading to rural unemployment. The mechanical innovations like tractors have displaced the agricultural labour.
  • Agricultural production in the Green Revolution areas is either stationary or has shown declining trend.
  • Some valuable agricultural lands have submerged under water {water-logging) or are adversely affected by salinity and alkalinity.
  • Green Revolution is crop specific. It could not perform well in the case of pulses and oilseeds.
  • The traditional institution of  Jajmani system has broken . Consequently, the barbers, carpenters, iron-smith, and watermen have migrated to the urban areas.
  • The soil texture, structure, soil chemistry, and soil fertility have changed.
  • About 60 per cent of agricultural land in the country remains unaffected by Green Revolution.
  • Green Revolution technologies are scale neutral but not resource neutral.
  •  Punjab feeds the nation but farmers in the state, especially in the Malwa region fall prey to cancer. They take ‘Cancer Train’ to Bikaner for cheap treatment.  ( due to pesticide use & growing pollution)

Second Green Revolution (2.0) in India | UPSC – IAS

The overall production of the cereal and non-cereal crops has reached almost the plateau stage. The growth rate of agricultural sector is only about two per cent. Looking at the growing demand of agricultural produce, there is an urgent need for undertaking agriculture to a higher trajectory of four per cent annual growth rate. In order to achieve these objectives, various governments have undertaken important steps towards agricultural reforms.
  • The Second Green Revolution is a change in agricultural production widely thought necessary to feed and sustain the growing population on Earth
  • These reforms aim at efficient use of resources and conservation of soil, water and ecology on a sustainable basis, and in holistic framework.
The main objectives of the second Green Revolution are:
  • To raise agricultural productivity to promote food security
  • More emphasis on bio-technology
  • To promote sustainable agriculture
  • To become self sufficient in staple food, pulses, oil seeds, and industrial raw material
  • To increase the per-capita income of the farmers and to raise their standard of living.
  • The holistic framework, thus,must incorporate financing of rural infrastructure such as irrigation, roads and power.
The Eleventh Five-Year Plan has aptly highlighted such a holistic framework and suggested the following strategy to raise agricultural output:
  • Attention has to be focused on areas such as rainfed, drought-prone crops, and drought resistant crops, and those amenable to biotechnological application
  • Improving water management, rainwater harvesting, and watershed development.
  • Reclaiming degraded land and focusing on soil quality.
  • Bridging the knowledge gap through effective extension.
  • Diversifying into high value outputs, e.g. fruits, vegetables, flowers, herbs and spices, medicinal plants, bamboo, bio-diesel, but with adequate measures to ensure food security.
  • Providing easy access to credit at affordable rate of interest.
  • Improving the incentive structure and functioning of markets